■■m 


FARM 
PROJECTS 


COLVIN 
and, 

STEVENSON 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L  I 


SOUTHERN  BRAINCn, 

UNIVZRSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

LIBRARY, 

UDS  ANGELES.  CALIF. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/farmprojectstextOOcolviala 


FARM  PROJECTS 


FARM     PROJECTS 

A  TEXTBOOK   IN   AGRICULTURE 

FOR 

SEVENTH  AND   EIGHTH  GRADES 

AND 

JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

BY 

Carl  Colvin,  M.  S. 

STATE  SUPERVISOR  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 
IN  ILLINOIS 

AND 

John  Alford  Stevenson,  Ph.  D. 

AUTHOR  OF  "the  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING" 


Nrm  f  nrk 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1922 


59714 


Printed  in  the  United  States 
of  America 


Copyright,  1922 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Published  June,  1922 


E.  K.  DON-NELLEY  &  SONS  COMPANY 
CHICAGO 


s 


THIS    BOOK    IS    DEDICATED    TO    OUR    FORMER 
TEACHER    AND    COLLEAGUE 

PROFESSOR  W.  W.  CHARTERS 


^ 

^ 


NOTE  TO  TEACHERS 


Many  teachers,  in  beginning  a  course,  consider  that 

the  effectiveness  of  the  whole  course  depends  on  their 

following,  chapter  by  chapter,  the  material  as  outlined 

1    in  the  book.    The  effectiveness  of  this  course  in  agri- 

^    culture  depends,  rather,  on  the  teacher's  willingness 

•*^    and  ability  to  adapt  the  material  to  the  community's 

needs.    There  can  be  no  better  way  to  introduce  the 

course  than  to  spend  probably  a  week's  time  on  the 

"Introduction,"  giving  the  pupils  all   the  time  and 

^   opportunity  they  desire  to  suggest  topics  and  plans  for 

further  study. 

It  is  essential  that  the  pupils  start  the  work  with  the 

\    point  of  view  that  what  they  do  in  school  is  an  exten- 

j    sion  of  their  home  activities  and  that  by  applying 

^    themselves  to  work  in  school  they  will  make  their  home 

tasks  easier  and  more  productive.    Make  them  see  the 

dollars  and  cents  value  of  their  work. 

The  course  in  agriculture  may  be  begun  at  a  time  of 
year  when  the  projects  suggested  in  the  first  part  of 
this  book  are  not  feasible.  In  that  case,  make  the  book 
fit  the  season. 

A  criticism  often  aimed  at  the  project  method  is  that 
after  the  pupils  have  carried  the  project  to  completion, 
no  time  is  devoted  to  drill  on  principles  and  information 


viii  NOTE  TO  TEACHERS 

introduced  during  the  process  of  solving  the  problem. 
Make  sure,  therefore,  that  the  principles  involved  in 
this  course  in  agriculture  are  illustrated  and  drilled 
upon.  After  the  pupils  have  finished  their  course  they 
should  not  only  be  trained  in  farm  activities  but  they 
should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  general  principles 
underlying  these  activities. 

Anticipate  your  projects.  It  may  be  that  a  certain 
project  should  be  started  four  or  five  weeks  before  the 
problem  is  taken  up  as  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the 
course.  Best  results  will  be  obtained  if  after  you  have 
studied  the  projects  suggested,  ascertained  the  local 
agricultural  problems,  and  considered  the  time  of  year  in 
which  the  work  is  to  be  started,  you  will  make  a  chart 
of  the  projects  to  be  undertaken.  You  may  be  able  to 
plan  new  and  interesting  projects  to  be  worked  out  in 
connection  with  the  course  as  outlined  in  the  text. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  interest  and  en- 
thusiasm of  the  pupils  will  be  aroused  if  the  school  work 
in  agriculture  is  shown  to  be  directly  concerned  with  the 
problems  arising  on  their  home  farms. 

C.  C. 
J.  A.  S. 


CONTENTS 

FIRST  YEAR 

sficriON 

PAGE 

I. 

Introduction      ......             i 

II. 

The  Community  Map  . 

4 

III. 

Plants        .... 

9 

IV. 

Plant  Propagation 

19 

V. 

Planting  the  School  Yard 

26 

VI. 

Selecting  Seed  Corn. 

36 

VII. 

The  Wheat  Crop 

43 

VIII. 

Weeds         .... 

54 

IX. 

Crop  Rotation  . 

59 

X. 

Soil  Fertility    . 

64 

XI. 

The  Use  of  Limestone  on  Soils 

72 

XII. 

Corn  Judging     . 

79 

XIII. 

Testing  Seed  Corn     . 

87 

XIV. 

Plant  Diseases  . 

95 

XV. 

Pruning     .... 

lOI 

XVI. 

The  Hotbed 

115 

XVII. 

Transplanting  Plants 

120 

XVIII. 

The  Home  Vegetable  Garden 

125 

XIX. 

The  Flower 

136 

XX. 

Trees         .... 

141 

XXI. 

Legumes     .... 

148 

XXII. 

Alfalfa      .... 

154 

XXIII. 

Growing  Cotton 

161 

SECOND  YEAR 

I. 

Better  Fgg  Production      ....         167 

II. 

Breeds  of  Poultry 

179 

X 

CONTENTS 

SECTION 

PAGE 

III. 

The  Babcock  Test      .... 

1 86 

IV. 

The  Silo 

194 

V. 

Milk  and  Its  Care     .... 

202 

VI. 

Feeding  Animals         .... 

211 

VII. 

How  To  Tell  the  Age  of  Animals 

222 

VIII. 

The  Horse          ..... 

229 

IX. 

Beef  Cattle       ..... 

238 

X. 

The  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cows 

247 

XI. 

Swine         ...... 

257 

XII. 

Sheep         

263 

XIII. 

Raising  a  Pet  Lamb    .... 

273 

XIV. 

Raising  a  Litter  of  Pigs     ... 

280 

XV. 

Some  Groups  of  Insects 

288 

XVI. 

The  Control  of  Insects 

295 

XVII. 

Insects  of  the  Garden 

305 

XVIII. 

The  Honeybee   ..... 

312 

XIX. 

Machines  ...... 

320 

XX. 

A  Study  of  the  Gas  Engine 

329 

XXI. 

The  Automobile          .... 

340 

Appendix 

. 

353 

FARM   PROJECTS 

I 

INTRODUCTION 

Have  you  ever  won  a  blue  ribbon  for  a  fine  hog  at 
your  County  or  State  Fair?  Have  you  ever  taken  first 
prize  for  the  best  ears  of  corn  at  your  corn  show?  If 
you  read  the  newspapers,  you  have  read  about  a  num- 
ber of  boys  who  have  brought  home  many  prizes  for 
their  exhibits  at  the  State  and  County  Fairs.  What  is 
more  to  the  point,  there  is  no  reason  why  your  exhibits 
shouldn't  be  just  as  fine  as  theirs,  if  you  will  enter  into 
the  spirit  of  the  work  as  it  is  suggested  in  the  following 
pages. 

In  starting  this  work,  you  are  starting  something  just 
a  little  difi^erent  from  anything  you  have  ever  under- 
taken in  school  before.  If  you  have  helped  your  father 
on  the  farm,  you  know  of  the  many  things  he  must  know 
and  plan  to  do.  It  may  seem  strange  to  you,  at  first, 
to  find  that  these  are  the  very  things  which  are  to  be 
taught  in  this  course  and  that  you  will  be  able  to  help 
him  by  actually  doing  some  of  his  work  while  you 
are  at  school.  You  also  know  of  a  number  of  things 
which  you  yourself  like  to  do  about  the  farm.     Aren't 


2  FARM   PROJECTS 

you  surprised  to  find  that  these  are  the  very  things 
which  are  to  be  studied  about  in  this  book? 

When  you  go  home  to-night,  sit  down  with  your  father 
and  mother  and  ask  them  to  tell  you  about  their  plans 
for  managing  your  farm.  Is  the  major  crop  to  be  corn 
or  wheat  ?  Does  your  father  expect  to  devote  most  of 
his  energies  to  the  raising  of  high-grade  stock?  Does 
he  expect  to  test  his  seed  corn?  Does  your  mother 
find  the  raising  of  a  few  chickens  profitable  ?  Are  there 
any  improvements  to  be  made  or  is  there  any  new 
machinery  which  is  to  be  bought? 

What  you  learn  in  studying  each  topic  will  be  of 
immediate  help  to  your  father  and  may  help  him  to 
save  a  large  amount  of  money.  You  will  read  about  a 
boy  who  started  a  friendly  contest  with  his  father  in 
raising  pigs.  By  the  time  the  litters  were  four  weeks 
old,  the  boy's  pigs,  which  had  been  fed  according  to  the 
method  which  he  learned  in  school,  were  much  finer 
than  his  father's.  The  father  was  so  much  pleased 
with  his  son's  success  that  he  gave  him  one  litter  of  pigs 
and  started  a  bank  account  for  him  for  the  purpose  of 
paying  his  expenses  through  high  school  and,  later, 
through  the  agricultural  college. 

If  you  will  explain  to  your  father  what  you  are 
doing,  he  may  be  induced  to  give  you  a  pig  or  a  few 
chickens  or  may  let  you  have  some  land  on  which 
to  raise  some  kind  of  crop.  By  a  little  thoughtful 
planning,  you  can  raise  large  quantities  of  vegetables 
in  a  comparatively  small  space.     When  you  try  exper- 


INTRODUCTION  3 

iments  at  home,  it  will  be  interesting  for  you  to 
compare  results  with  boys  who  are  using  the  same 
methods  that  you  are  and  with  those  who  are  using 
different  methods. 

In  your  school  you  may  not  take  up  the  work  in  the 
order  suggested  here,  since  you  may  have  other  prob- 
lems to  consider,  but  after  you  have  read  over  the  list 
of  topics  you  can  talk  the  matter  over  among  yourselves 
and  decide  on  the  order  which  will  be  of  most  help  to 
you  in  your  work.  Perhaps  you  can  make  a  report  to 
your  teacher  on  the  topics  you  would  like  to  study  first. 

It  may  be  that  you  will  find  some  difficult  problems 
to  work  out  at  the  very  beginning.  We  usually  find  it 
easier,  however,  to  do  things  which  are  considered  hard, 
when  we  have  a  real  reason  for  doing  them,  than  to  do 
"easy"  things  when  we  see  no  reason  for  doing  them. 

You  will  see  clearly  why  we  must  plan  for  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  home  work.  What  we  learn  in 
school,  however,  would  not  have  much  value  unless  we 
could  use  it  at  home,  would  it? 

Anything  of  interest  about  the  farm  may  be  part  of 
this  course  in  agriculture.  Not  all  the  subjects  on 
which  a  first-class  farmer  should  have  some  knowledge 
can  be  discussed  at  length  in  school,  but  most  of  them 
will  be  given  some  consideration. 

It  will  probably  be  wise  to  begin  your  work  by  making 
a  community  map  like  that  suggested  in  the  following 
chapter,  in  order  that  you  may  know  the  "lay-out"  of 
the  farms  in  the  community  in  which  you  live. 


II 

THE  COMMUNITY  MAP 

Class  Exercise 

All  boys  and  girls  who  are  studying  about  farms  and 
farm  life  should  know  something  about  the  farms  of 
the  community  in  which  they  live.  It  would  be  a 
waste  of  time  to  spend  several  years  at  school  studying 
agriculture  if,  at  the  end  of  that  time,  we  knew  nothing 
about  the  farms  in  our  own  section  of  the  country.  In 
studying  the  various  topics  included  in  this  book,  then, 
we  must  be  sure  to  know  how  the  information  we  gain 
applies  to  our  own  community.  If  we  are  studying 
wheat,  we  must  know  what  kinds  of  wheat  are  grown 
on  the  farms  around  us  and  the  methods  employed  by 
the  farmers  who  raise  the  largest  crops.  If  we  are 
studying  trees,  we  should  know  what  trees  grow  in 
our  own  orchards  and  wood  lots  and  how  these  are 
cared  for. 

Of  course,  most  boys  and  girls  have  some  knowledge 
of  what  kinds  of  live  stock  and  what  crops  are  raised 
in  their  community.  But  if  we  make  a  systematic 
study  of  this  community,  we  shall  discover  many 
interesting  and  valuable  facts  which  are  not  generally 
known.     We  must  try  to  observe  something  new  each 

4 


THE  COMMUNITY  MAP  5 

day;  for  our  experiences  will  be  a  valuable  part  of  the 
lessons  taught  in  school. 

When  we  study  about  a  new  country  in  geography 
we  usually  find  a  map  of  that  country  at  the  beginning 
of  the  lesson.  Maps  record  many  items  which  would 
be  difficult  to  explain  clearly  in  a  written  account. 
Ideas  of  proportion  in  size,  quantity,  and  distance,  can 
be  better  illustrated  by  a  map.  As  we  have  no  map 
which  contains  the  information  about  our  community 
that  we  want,  we  shall  have  to  make  our  own  map. 

Obtain  from  the  stationer's  or  the  print  shop  several 
sheets  of  heavy  paper,  thirty  inches  by  thirty-six  inches, 
suitable  for  map  making.  Decide  upon  a  convenient 
scale  for  the  map,  one  inch  to  twenty-five  rods  being 
a  convenient  scale  for  such  maps.  A  preliminary 
sketch  may  be  made  upon  the  blackboard.  Include  in 
the  map  all  areas  that  are  represented  in  the  school 
community  or  district.  If  the  area  to  be  included  is  too 
large  to  be  shown  clearly  on  one  map,  sectional  maps 
may  be  made  and  fitted  together.  Divide  the  area 
into  four  equal  parts  and  draw  the  maps  on  four  sheets 
of  paper  so  they  may  be  fitted  together  and  made  to 
match.  When  the  boundary  lines  of  the  whole  area 
have  been  cnrefully  drawn,  the  following  items  should 
be  indicated  in  the  order  named: 

1.  Roads.  All  crossroads  and  main  highways  should  be  indi- 
cated by  red  lines  on  the  map. 

2.  Boundary  lines  of  the  farms.  Accurate  data  should  be 
obtained  by  members  of  the  class  showing  the  size  of  each  farm. 


6  FARM   PROJECTS 

The  value  of  this  map  as  it  is  used  through  the  year  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  accuracy  and  neatness  exercised  in  placing  the 
boundary  lines. 


T° 


Fig.  I.   Outline  map  of  one  quarter  of  a  school  district  showing 

FARMS  and  fences 


3.  Streams.     Locate  the  source  of  each  stream  and  drainage 
ditch  cutting  through  the  farms,  using  blue  lines. 

4.  Forest  areas.     Shade  in  black  all  areas  that  are  forest  lands 
and  non-tillable. 

5.  Fields.     The  farms  should  be  divided  into  fields  as  they  are 
fenced  off,  or  divided  by  the  farmers.     Each  member  of  the  class 


THE  COMMUNITY  MAP  7 

should  bring  a  map  of  his  father's  farm,  showing  the  division 
fences.  The  data  from  farms  not  represented  in  class  may  be 
obtained  by  members  of  the  class  who  live  near  by. 

6.  Farm  buildings.  The  farm  houses,  barns,  and  other  build- 
ings may  be  located  on  the  map  after  the  division  lines  are  placed 
in  each  farm. 

7.  Public  property.  Locate  the  school  grounds  and  school 
houses,  and  other  public  property. 

The  illustration,  Fig.  i,  shows  an  outline  map  which 
follows  the  above  suggestions.  It  represents  one  quar- 
ter of  a  rural  school  community. 

Each  member  of  the  class  should  draw  a  map  in  his 
notebook  exactly  like  the  large  map,  except  in  size. 
One  inch  to  one  hundred  sixty  rods  is  a  convenient 
scale. 

If  there  is  a  hectograph  or  mimeograph  in  the  school, 
several  copies  of  the  smaller  maps  should  be  made  for 
the  use  of  the  class  in  representing  crop  areas  and  other 
interesting  data.  Parents  will  be  glad  to  see  these 
maps.  The  small  maps  may  be  shaded  in  various  ways 
to  show  the  clover  fields,  the  wheat  fields,  the  cotton 
fields,  and  the  portion  of  any  section  devoted  to  a 
certain  crop. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  How  many  acres  are  there  in  a  section.? 

2.  How  many  rods  square  is  a  quarter  section.? 

3.  How  long  is  an  eighty-acre  field  which  is  forty  rods  wide.? 

4.  If  a  field  is  ten  rods  wide,  twenty  rods  long  on  one  side,  and 
twenty-six  rods  on  the  other,  how  many  acres  are  there  in  it? 


8  FARM   PROJECTS 

5.  How  many  farms  are  there  in  the  school  community?  What 
is  the  average  size  of  the  farms?  How  many  acres  are  there  in 
the  smallest  farm?     In  the  largest  farm? 

6.  How  many  miles  of  fence  are  there  in  the  school  community  ? 
Estimate  the  amount  of  money  invested  in  fence. 

7.  How  wide  are  the  roads  in  the  community?  What  per  cent 
of  the  land  is  used  for  public  roads? 

8.  What  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage  is  devoted  to  corn  ?  To 
wheat?  To  orchards?  To  pasture?  Is  this  distribution  eco- 
nomical?    Does  this  distribution  bring  the  best  returns? 

9.  How  many  acres  of  land  on  your  farm  are  not  tillable?  What 
is  the  reason?  How  much  is  taken  up  by  the  barnyard  and  other 
yards,  including  space  for  buildings? 


Ill 

PLANTS 

Home  Work 

In  order  to  see  clearly  the  relation  of  the  different 
parts  of  a  plant  to  each  other  we  shall  study  the  plant 
as  a  whole.  The  potato  is  a  good  example  to  use  if  it  is 
growing  at  the  time  this  project  is  studied,  but  if  not, 
some  other  plant  which  is  growing  in  the  garden  may 
serve. 

The  entire  plant  should  be  taken  from  the  soil  and 
the  soil  washed  from  around  its  roots.  Measure  each 
stem  and  each  root  in  order  to  find  out  the  total  length 
of  the  stems  and  of  the  roots.  Compare  the  length  of 
the  roots  with  that  of  the  stems.  Count  the  number 
of  leaves  on  the  plant.  Are  there  any  other  structures 
which  are  not  true  roots,  stems,  or  leaves .?  If  so,  where 
are  they  located .?  Make  a  drawing  of  the  plant  show- 
ing all  the  parts.  Notice  the  root  hairs  near  the  tip  of 
the  root.  Compare  the  fleshy  part  of  the  sweet  potato 
with  the  fleshy  part  of  the  Irish  potato.  Does  the 
sweet  potato  have  eyes  similar  to  the  Irish  potato.? 
Are  the  sweet  potatoes  cut  into  parts  when  planted.? 
Write  the  history  of  a  potato  plant  from  the  time  it 
is  planted  until  it  is  taken  out  of  the  ground  for  use 

9 


lo  FARM  PROJECTS 

as  food.     Answer  the  following  questions  from  your 
observations: 

1.  How  many  leaves  are  there  on  an  ordinary  Irish  potato 
plant?  Estimate  the  total  number  of  square  inches  of  leaf  sur- 
face. 

2.  What  happens  if  a  part  of  the  root  system  of  a  plant  is  des- 
troyed by  cutting  off  the  roots  with  a  spade? 

3.  Which  yielded  the  larger  income  last  year  on  your  farm,  the 
animals  and  animal  products  or  the  plants  and  their  products? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  plants  you  can  find  on  the  way  to 
school.* 

5.  What  wild  plants  in  your  locality  are  of  some  value  as  food 
for  people  or  can  be  used  to  feed  animals? 

Facts  to  Be  Studied 

Extent  of  Plant  Growth. — Almost  everywhere  on  the 
face  of  the  earth  we  find  plants  growing.  Plants  are 
living  things  just  as  animals  are,  and  are  able  to  adapt 
themselves  to  varying  conditions.  Even  the  most 
rocky  portions  of  the  earth  are  covered  with  kinds  of 
small  plants,  such  as  mosses,  lichens,  and  small  shrubs. 
Tiny  plants  may  be  found  growing  up  through  the 
snow  on  the  mountains,  bearing  flowers  though  the 
snow  covers  the  ground  most  of  the  year.  Even  on 
the  deserts  plants  may  be  found  which  are  adapted 
to  the  hot  dry  climate  there.  Some  classes  of  plants 
are  so  small  that  they  cannot  be  seen  without  the 
aid  of  a  high  power  microscope.  The  bacteria  illus- 
trate this  class.     These  plants  are  sometimes,  though 

*  This  may  be  made  a  class  contest. 


PLANTS  II 

incorrectly,  called  germs;  they  cause  disease  when  they 
get  into  the  blood,  cause  decay,  cause  milk  to  sour, 
and  produce  many  other  results  which  are  apparent  in 
everyday  life.  Some  small  plants  such  as  water  lilies 
grow  in  water.  The  scum  which  is  sometimes  found 
on  the  surface  of  ponds  is  really  made  up  of  growing 
plants. 

Uses  of  Plants. — We  are  more  interested,  however, 
in  the  group  of  plants  called  seed  plants,  because  this 
group  has  a  greater  economic  value.  The  botanist  calls 
this  group  spermatophytes,  the  word  meaning  seed- 
bearing  plants. 

Plants  furnish  the  basis  for  all  animal  life  and  if  it 
were  not  for  plants,  animals  could  not  live.  Plants 
furnish  food,  shelter,  and  clothing  for  man.  The  food 
plants  are  so  numerous  and  so  widely  distributed  that 
we  need  not  list  them  here.  Our  houses  are  built  of 
the  wood  from  trees.  Thus  we  obtain  shelter  for  our- 
selves and  for  animals.  The  cotton  plant  is  a  worthy 
rival  of  the  wool-producing  sheep  in  the  business  of 
producing  material  for  our  clothing  and  house  furnish- 
ings. 

Plants  are  also  used  very  extensively  for  medicinal 
purposes.  The  Indians  early  recognized  this  value  of 
herbs.  We  have  developed  the  industry  until  we  are 
able  to  extract  quantities  of  drugs  and  chemicals  from 
plants. 

The  Plant  as  a  Factory. — As  our  existence  from  year 
to  year  depends  upon  the  growth  of  plants,  we  should 


12  FARM   PROJECTS 

give  some  attention  to  the  growth  of  useful  or  economic 
plants,  our  purpose  being  to  learn  how  to  grow  better 
plants.  We  may  best  begin  by  studying  a  single  plant 
to  learn  how  it  grows.  Every  plant  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  factory  which  takes  raw  material  from  the 
soil  and  from  the  air  and  works  it  over  into  finished 
products.  The  apple  tree,  through  its  roots,  takes  the 
mineral  matter  and  water  from  the  soil,  and  through 
its  leaves  takes  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air.  These 
materials  are  changed  and  worked  over  in  the  cells  of 
the  leaves  and  stems,  and  a  part  of  the  material  thus 
worked  over  goes  to  make  up  the  apple,  which  we  use 
as  food. 

We  should  remember  that  the  apple  tree  does  not 
manufacture  apples  for  us  to  eat,  but  produces  apples 
because  that  is  the  method  of  forming  and  preserving 
the  seed  that  is  to  produce  another  apple  tree.  If 
allowed  to  grow  undisturbed  by  man,  the  apple  tree 
would  not  produce  such  delicious  fruit  because  fine 
fruit  is  not  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  reproducing  a 
tree.  When  we  eat  the  potato,  the  apple,  or  the  grain 
of  wheat  or  corn  we  are  eating  that  which  nature 
intended  to  produce  new  plants. 

Parts  of  the  Plant.— This  plant  factory  is  so  made 
that  no  man  has  ever  been  able  to  imitate  it.  We  find 
that  a  plant  is  divided  into  such  main  parts  as  the  roots, 
stems,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits,  all  parts  being  put 
together  in  such  a  way  that  they  work  in  perfect  har- 
mony  for   the   single   purpose   of  producing   another 


PLANTS  13 

generation  of  plants.  The  individual  plant  uses  great 
quantities  of  water,  just  as  the  steam  engine  uses  large 
quantities  of  water. 

The  function  of  the  roots  of  plants  is : 

1.  To  hold  the  plant  in  its  place  in  the  soil. 

2.  To  furnish  a  channel  through  which  the  sap  is  transferred 
from  the  roots  to  the  leaves. 

3.  To  furnish  a  storehouse  for  the  finished  product. 

4.  To  act  as  a  workroom  of  the  factory. 

The  function  of  the  stem  is : 

1.  To  hold  the  leaves  up  to  the  light. 

2.  To  furnish  a  channel  through  which  the  sap  is  transferred 
from  the  roots  to  the  leaves. 

3.  To  furnish  a  storehouse  for  the  finished  product. 

4.  To  act  as  a  workroom  in  some  cases  for  the  factory. 

The  function  of  the  leaves  on  the  plant  is : 

1.  To  manufacture  starch  or  food. 

2.  To  provide  an  exit  for  water  and  an  entrance  for  carbon 
dioxide.  (Water  is  given  off  and  carbon  dioxide  breathed  in 
through  the  leaves.) 

The  leaf  also  acts  as  a  storehouse  for  food  in  some 
plants.  In  each  leaf  of  the  plant  there  is  a  greenish 
substance  called  chlorophyll  which  helps  to  supply  food 
to  the  plant  by  turning  the  carbon  dioxide  into  food 
which  the  plant  needs. 

The  function  of  the  flower  of  the  plant  is  to  make 
preparation  for  the  production  of  the  fruit;  that  is  to 
say,  the  flower  is  the  undeveloped  fruit  of  the  plant  and 
the  purpose  of  the  fruit  is  the  reproduction  of  the  plant. 


14 


FARM   PROJECTS 


If  we  study  the  root  structure  we  shall  find  that  the 
root  is  covered  near  its  tip  with  very  fine  hairs.  These 
root  hairs,  as  they  are  called,  are  really  only  extensions 
on  the  outside  wall  of  the  cells  of  the 
plant. 

The  sap  in  the  plant  is  thicker  than 
the  moisture  in  the  soil  and  this  mois- 
ture flows  into  the  plant,  and  is  taken 
up  through  the  channels  of  the  root 
and  stem.  As  soon  as  the  water  has  en- 
tered the  root  it  finds  its  way  through 
the  channels  of  the  root  and  through 
the  stem  to  the  leaf.  If  a  cross  section 
of  a  piece  of  stem  be  examined,  these 
channels  in  the  coarse  structure  of  the 
wood  may  be  easily 

Fig.  2.  RooTTiPAND       nntpH 

ROOT  HAIRS  IIULCU. 

How  the  Starch  Is 
Made. — In  the  stem  are  tube-like 
cells  through  which  the  water  passes 
to  and  from  the  leaf.  The  water 
which  thus  enters  the  plant,  carries 
with  it  a  mineral  food  in  solution 
from  the  soil  and  it  is  in  this  way 
that  the  food  reaches  the  various 
parts  of  the  plant  where  it  is  worked  over  into  the  plant 
tissue.  Starch  is  composed  of  three  elements,  viz., 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbon,  two  of  which  (hydrogen 
and  oxygen)   make  up  what  is  commonly  known  as 


Fig.  3.  Cross  section  of 

YOUNG  root  showing 
CELL  ARRANGEMENT 


PLANTS  15 

water.  Two  of  them,  carbon  and  oxygen,  make  up 
carbon  dioxide.  The  leaves  breathe  in  the  carbon  diox- 
ide and  obtain  water  from  the  soil  and,  in  the  various 
channels  composing  the  body  of  the  leaf,  these  two  sub- 
stances are  worked  over  into  a  single  substance  called 
starch. 

Power  of  the  Factory. — If  we  were  to  analyze  this 
starch  in  the  chemical  laboratory  we  should  find  that 
it  contained  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  oxy- 
gen which  is  not  used  by  the  plant  is  given  off  into  the 
air,  and  all  day  long  this  little  factory  keeps  working 
away  making  starch  from  these  two  raw  materials,  water 
and  carbon  dioxide.  It  is  truly  a  factory,  but  from  what 
source  does  it  derive  its  power.?  What  and  where  is 
the  little  engine  that  makes  the  factory  go.?  The  sun 
is  the  engine,  giving  the  plant  all  its  energy  by  means  of 
the  sunlight.  The  plant  ceases  to  make  starch  in  the 
dark.  Most  plants  do  the  manufacturing  during  the 
daytime  and  then  store  the  food  away  at  night.  The 
starch  is  transferred  to  some  other  part  of  the  plant, 
for  instance  to  the  roots  to  be  stored,  or  it  may  be  taken 
to  some  part  to  be  further  worked  over  into  other  kinds 
of  food. 

For  the  purpose  of  building  up  plant  tissues  and  pro- 
ducing fruit,  plants  require  ten  elements,  which  they 
get  from  the  soil,  air,  and  water.  These  elements  are 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  calcium,  iron,  and  magnesium.  An 
easy  way  to  remember  these  elements  which  the  plant 


i6 


FARM  PROJECTS 


requires  to  make  its  growth  is  to  memorize  the  following 
expression:  C.  Hopk'ns  CaFe,  Mg.  The  first  letters 
of  each  of  the  elements  are  used  in  the  expression;  thus, 
C — Carbon;  H — Hydrogen;  O — Oxygen;  P — Phos- 
phorus; K — Kalium,  the 
Latin  word  for  potas- 
sium; N — Nitrogen;  S — 
Sulphur;  Ca — Calcium; 
Fe — Ferrum,  the  Latin 
word  for  iron;  and  Mg — 
Magnesium.  If  one  of 
these  elements  is  lacking 
in  the  soil,  the  plant  is 
sure  to  die  and  if  one  is 
present  only  in  a  small 
amount,  the  plant's 
growth  will  be  retarded. 
If  a  barrel  is  made  of  long 
and  short  staves  it  will  hold  water  only  to  the  top  of 
the  shortest  stave.  Just  so,  the  plant  can  grow  only 
until  the  most  limited  element  in  the  soil  is  all  used; 
then  it  must  cease  growing  no  matter  how  large  a 
quantity  of  the  other  elements  is  in  the  soil. 

The  Potato  as  an  Illustration  of  Plants. — To  illus- 
trate the  different  parts  of  this  factory  we  have  been 
talking  about  we  may  study  the  potato  plant.  The 
roots  of  the  plant  extend  several  inches  in  all  directions 
from  the  center  of  growth,  and  it  is  through  these  roots 
that  the  mineral  food  and  water  enter  the  plant      The 


Fig.  4.  The  amount  of  water  which 
the  barrel  will  hold  is  limited  by 
the  length  of  b. 


PLANTS  17 

green  stem  of  the  plant,  in  this  case  extending  above 
the  ground,  not  only  supports  the  leaves  but  also  fur- 
nishes a  channel  for  transporting  the  sap  from  the  roots 
to  the  leaves.  It  is  in  the  leaves  that  the  starch  is 
made.  The  starch  being  made  in  the  leaves,  is  trans- 
ferred into  the  little  storehouses  through  the  channels 
of  the  stem.  These  storehouses  are  called  tubers.  It 
may  seem  that  these  tubers  are  the  roots  of  the  plant, 
but  this  is  not  the  case,  as  they  are  attached  to  the  little 
stemlike  structures  which  are  beneath  the  soil.  They 
are  the  storehouses  of  the  plant  in  which  the  finished 
product  is  stored.  The  flower  of  the  potato  appears 
above  ground  and  grows  on  the  stem  much  the  same  as 
the  flower  on  the  apple  tree  grows.  In  some  instances 
the  seed  develops  just  as  it  develops  in  the  apple  and 
this  results  in  a  structure  which  is  called  the  fruit  of  the 
potato.  While  it  is  true  that  the  potato  is  grown  from 
the  tuber  which  has  a  number  of  eyes,  or  buds,  which 
are  to  produce  other  plants,  it  is  also  true  that  new 
plants  may  be  obtained  from  seed.  Every  new  variety 
of  potato  must  be  started  by  seed. 

The  Irish  potato  plant  illustrates  the  structure  of 
most  of  the  plants  we  have  mentioned  so  far.  The 
sweet  potato  stores  its  food  in  a  different  way,  storing 
the  starchy  food  in  its  roots  which  become  fleshy  at  one 
point  rather  than  in  the  stems.  An  example  of  a  plant 
which  stores  its  food  in  the  stem  above  the  ground  is 
the  kohlrabi  which  produces  an  enlargement  of  the 
stem  just  above  the  ground.     A  plant  which  stores  its 


i8  FARM   PROJECTS 

food  in  the  main  stem  is  the  beet  or  radish,  while  the 
cabbage  stores  its  food  in  the  leaves,  which  taken  to- 
gether are  called  a  head.  We  use  these  parts  of  the 
plant  which  we  have  called  storehouses  for  food  when 
we  eat  the  tubers  of  the  Irish  potato,  the  fleshy  roots 
of  the  sweet  potato,  and  the  heads  of  the  cabbage. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  How  is  plant  growth  related  to  the  richness  or  fertility  of 
the  soil? 

2.  Name  all  the  uses  of  plants  which  you  can  illustrate. 

3.  In  what  ways  is  the  plant  like  a  factory? 

4.  Why  does  the  corn  plant  produce  seed? 

5.  Name  the  main  parts  of  a  plant  and  give  the  purpose  of  each 
part. 

6.  How  is  moisture  taken  into  the  plants? 

7.  Where  is  starch  made?     How? 

8.  What  is  the  source  of  power  for  the  manufacture  of  food  in 
the  plant? 

9.  Name  the  elements  required  for  plant  growth.  Define  the 
word  element.  (Consult  the  dictionary  for  the  meaning  of  the 
word  element.) 

10.  What  is  meant  by  a  plant's  storehouse? 

11.  Give  examples  of  plants  which  store  food  in  the  leaves;  in 
roots;   stems;   underground  stems. 


IV 
PLANT  PROPAGATION 


Home  Work 

Place  some  bean  seed  between  pieces  of  blotting 
paper  on  a  plate.  Keep  in  a  warm  place  and  apply 
plenty  of  moisture  to  keep  the  blotter  from  becoming 
dry.  The  moisture  will  not  evaporate  rapidly  if  two 
dinner  plates  are  used,  one  turned  over  the  other. 

Place  some  seeds  on  another  plate  and  keep  them 
covered  with  water.     Note  what  happens. 

Place  another  plate,  containing  the  seed  between  the 
blotters,  in  the  ice  box  or  in  some  other  cold  place. 
What  happens?  What 
seems  to  be  necessary  for 
good  germination  or  first 
growth .? 

Test  clover  seed  for 
vitality  by  placing  one 
hundred  seeds  between 
blotting  paper  on  a  plate, 
keeping  the  paper  moist  for  a  few  days.  Count  the  num- 
ber of  seeds  which  germinate.   What  per  cent  germinate .? 

Make  cuttings  of  some  plants  at  home  and  start  them 
in  pots  of  sandy  soil.     Choose  the  plants  which  are 

19 


Fig.  5.   Seed  may  be  germinated  be- 
tween PLATES 


20 


FARM   PROJECTS 


Fig,  6.   Beans  germinating 


most  convenient;  that  is,  plants  growing  around  your 
home.  Geranium  plants  make  good  cuttings  which 
grow  readily  when  placed  in  fine  soil.  The  cuttings  may 
be  made  by  cutting  off  about  three  inches  of  the  stem  or 

branch  and  pinching  off  the 
leaves.  The  cuttings  may  be 
started  in  sand  or  in  a  glass 
of  water,  in  which  case  they 
should  be  transplanted  as 
soon  as  the  roots  appear. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

How  Plants  Are  Started. — 
Crop  production  depends 
upon  the  care  of  plants,  a 
part  of  this  care  being  the  propagation  of  plants  or 
starting  of  plants  from  time  to  time.  Each  season  the 
farmer  must  plant  new  crops  which  means  that  he  must 
aid  the  plants  in  getting  a  start.  The  most  common 
method  of  starting  plants  for  a  new  crop  is  that  of 
planting  seeds.  Some  plants  begin  their  new  growth 
by  means  of  spores  which  are  microscopic  structures 
corresponding  to  the  seeds  of  larger  plants.  A  third 
method  of  propagation  is  that  of  making  cuttings,  or 
using  a  part  of  the  plant  itself  other  than  the  seed  or 
spore  to  start  a  new  growth. 

Seed. — The  seed  of  plants  is  so  commonly  known  that 
little  need  be  said  about  it.  The  seed  is  really  a  small 
living  plant  imbedded  in  enough  food  to  keep  it  grow- 


PLANT  PROPAGATION  21 

ing  until  it  can  manufacture  its  own.  Most  economic 
crops  are  started  by  means  of  seed.  Each  kind  of  seed 
differs  from  every  other  kind,  though  seeds  of  different 
plants  sometimes  resemble  each  other  so  closely  that 
it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them.  The  most  important 
problems  before  the  farmer  at  planting  time  are  to  make 
sure  that  the  seed  which  he  is  about  to  plant  is  pure 
and  that  it  will  grow.  A  method  of  testing  seed  is  out- 
lined in  the  chapter  on  "Testing  Seed  Corn." 

Factors  Necessary  for  Germination  or  Growth. — In 
order  that  plants  may  be  grown  from  seed,  certain  fac- 
tors are  essential: 

1.  The  seed  must  be  vital;  that  is,  it  must  be  alive 
and  ready  to  start  growth  when  the  conditions  are  right. 

2.  Plenty  of  moisture  must  be  present.  Seeds  will 
not  germinate  without  plenty  of  moisture.  If  seeds 
would  start  growth  without  moisture,  they  would  grow 
through  the  winter  while  in  storage.  If  the  soil  is  rolled 
after  planting,  the  moisture  rises  in  the  soil  more 
rapidly  and  the  seed  is  more  likely  to  get  enough  mois- 
ture to  start  growth  than  if  it  is  sowed  in  a  rough  seed 
bed. 

3.  Air  is  necessary  for  the  first  growth  of  the  plants. 
If  seeds  are  kept  under  water,  they  will  not  germinate, 
because  the  water  excludes  the  air.  Frequently  stands 
of  corn  and  other  crops  are  poor  because  the  soil  has 
been  wet  when  the  seed  was  planted. 

4.  Warmth  is  needed  to  start  the  processes  of  growth. 
However,  some  seed  germinates  at  a  rather  low  tempera- 


22  FARM   PROJECTS 

ture.  Lettuce  and  radishes  may  be  planted  in  the 
garden  very  early  in  the  spring  and  they  will  germinate 
and  make  a  good  growth  despite  the  cool  temperature. 
On  the  other  hand,  corn,  beans,  and  cucumbers  require 
a  higher  temperature  for  good  germination.  It  is 
apparent  that  the  farmer  has  many  problems  to  face 
in  starting  a  crop  from  seed. 

Storage  of  Seed. — The  seed  must  be  stored  under  good 
conditions,  or  the  tiny  embryo  or  baby  plant  will  be 
injured,  or,  in  many  cases,  killed  by  weather  conditions. 
Seed  is  usually  planted  the  next  year  after  it  is  pro- 
duced, although  many  kinds  of  seeds  live  much  longer. 
Some  weed  seeds  have  germinated  after  twenty-five 
years,  while  peas  and  soy-beans  do  not  germinate  well 
after  two  years. 

Buds. — There  are  many  kinds  of  buds  and  many 
methods  of  starting  plants  by  bud  growth.  Some 
specialized  forms  of  buds  are  the  bulbs  and  corms.  Ex- 
amples of  bulbs  are  the  tulip,  onion,  and  many  lilies. 
The  bulbs  are  really  shortened  stems  containing  buds 
which  begin  growth,  forming  a  new  plant  as  soon  as 
conditions  are  right  for  the  growth  of  the  bud.  The 
bulbs  are  made  up  of  leaves  or  scales  lying  close  to- 
gether while  the  corms  are  solid  throughout.  The  cro- 
cus, one  of  the  earliest  flowers  to  bloom  in  the  spring,  is 
propagated  from  corms. 

The  tuber  is  another  specialized  part  which  produces 
a  new  plant  from  its  buds  or  eyes,  the  Irish  potato 
being   an   example.     Tubers    are   underground'  stems 


PLANT  PROPAGATION  23 

thickened  or  fleshy,  sometimes  thought  to  be  parts  of 
the  root  system. 

Other  plants  reproduce  by  means  of  rootstocks,  or 
thickened  underground  stems  producing  roots;  runners, 
or  traihng  stems  producing  new  plants  from  the  nodes; 
or  suckers,  which  are  plants  produced  by  stems  covered 
with  earth.  Timothy  reproduces  by  means  of  root- 
stocks,  strawberries  by  runners,  and  raspberries  by 
suckers.  Some  plants  such  as  the  grape  are  propagated 
by  layering.  The  stems  are  brought  to  the  ground  and 
covered  with  soil  so  as  to  start  new  growth  from  the 
nodes  of  the  stems.  Black  raspberries  naturally  bend 
to  the  ground  and  the  tips  of  the  stems  take  root  in  the 
soil,  forming  new  plants. 

Cuttings. — Sometimes  the  farmer  cannot  depend  upon 
nature  to  propagate  the  plants  which  grow  from  buds, 
so  he  helps  her  in  the  work  of  propagation  by  making 
cuttings  of  stems,  roots,  or  leaves.  Every  farm  boy 
is  familiar  with  the  method  of  cutting  the  Irish  potato, 
it  being  necessary  to  have  an  eye  in  each  piece  before  a 
new  plant  can  be  formed.  New  plants  would  be  formed 
if  the  whole  potato  was  planted,  but  many  more  plants 
may  be  obtained  by  making  cuttings.  The  geranium 
is  a  good  illustration  of  a  plant  that  is  propagated  by 
stem  cuttings,  it  being  possible  to  start  large  numbers 
of  plants  from  a  single  branch  of  geranium  plant.  Usu- 
ally the  parts  of  the  stem  with  growing  tips  are  selected, 
and  cuttings  are  made  from  two  to  six  inches  in  length. 
When  the  base  of  the  cutting  is  buried  in  warm,  moist 


24  FARM   PROJECTS 

soil,  growth  soon  begins  and  roots  are  sent  out  from 
the  stem. 

Sometimes  leaf  cuttings  are  made  from  such  thick- 
leafed  plants  as  the  begonia.  The  leaves  contain  much 
food  and  will  soon  start  a  growth  of  roots  if  they  are 
cut  at  points  along  the  rib,  laid  on  wet  sand,  and  kept 
warm  and  moist  for  a  few  days.  Root  cuttings  are 
made  like  the  stem  cuttings.  Most  plants  can  be 
started  by  making  root  cuttings  if  the  same  conditions 
for  growth  are  present  that  were  mentioned  as  require- 
ments for  seed  germination. 

When  to  Make  Cuttings. — The  hardwood  cuttings, 
such  as  the  grape,  require  long  periods  of  time  to  start 
new  growth  and  should  be  made  in  the  fall  and  stored 
in  moist  sand  through  the  winter.  When  they  are 
placed  in  the  soil  in  the  spring,  they  will  make  an  early 
growth.  Tuber  cuttings  are  made  at  planting  time,  as 
there  is  no  advantage  in  making  them  earlier.  Soft 
wood  cuttings  such  as  the  geranium  may  be  made 
in  the  fall  and  started  in  pots  in  the  greenhouse,  or 
the  plants  may  be  stored  over  winter  and  the  cuttings 
made  in  the  spring. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  List  all  the  plants  grown  in  your  community  which  are  prop- 
agated by  seeds;  by  spores;  by  vegetable  parts  or  buds. 

2.  If  in  lOO  seeds,  95  alfalfa  seeds  and  5  weed  seeds  are  found, 
and  by  testing  it  is  found  that  85%  of  the  alfalfa  seeds  grew,  what 
percentage  of  the  entire  sample  is  good  alfalfa? 


PLANT  PROPAGATION  25 

3.  Give  reasons  for  testing  seed  before  planting. 

4.  Ask  your  father  about  the  pure  seed  law  in  your  state.  What 
requirements  does  the  law  make? 

5.  Describe  the  different  kinds  of  cuttings  that  may  be  made, 

6.  What  advantage,  if  any,  would  be  gained  by  planting  whole 
potatoes  instead  of  pieces.'* 

7.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  plants  grown  on  your  farm  which  are 
grown  from  seed  but  which  do  not  produce  seed  in  your  climate. 
Where  is  such  seed  secured  ? 


V 
PLANTING  THE   SCHOOL  YARD 

School  Exercise 

Making  a  Map  of  the  School  Grounds. — This  exer- 
cise can  be  carried  out  satisfactorily  if  all  the  members 
of  the  class  will  cooperate.  You  should  work  together 
in  drawing  a  map  of  the  school  grounds,  using  some 
convenient  scale,  a  satisfactory  scale  for  most  school 
grounds  being  one  inch  to  ten  feet.  Indicate  on  the 
map  all  trees  and  shrubs  that  are  already  on  the 
grounds.  Mark  off  the  ball  diamond  and  other  places 
used  for  sports  and  indicate  all  playground  apparatus. 
Draw  in  the  walks,  outline  the  borders  about  the 
school  house  and  the  corners  of  the  yard  as  you  think 
they  should  be  planted,  and  make  a  list  of  the  number 
of  trees  and  shrubs  which  will  be  required.  See  the 
illustration  on  the  following  page  for  suggestions. 

Planting  Date. — Planting  may  be  done  in  the  spring 
or  fall  but  there  are  some  advantages  in  planting  the 
school  yard  in  the  fall,  as  you  can  learn  how  to  care  for 
the  plants  during  the  fall  and  winter  and  again  in  the 
spring  when  they  begin  to  make  their  growth.  You 
can  interest  many  of  the  friends  of  the  school  in  the 
work  which  you  are  doing  if  you  make  the  planting 

26 


PLANTING  THE   SCHOOL  YARD 


27 


PEVELCPMENT    PLAN  /<- 

A  RURAL  SCHOOL  GROUNP 


Fig.  7.   Plan  showing  method  of  grouping  shrubs 
and  trees 


28  FARM   PROJECTS 

day  a  "patrons'  day"  and  arrange  an  appropriate  pro- 
gram to  be  carried  out  during  a  part  of  the  day. 

Obtaining  the  Shrubs. — Many  shrubs  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  home  yards  in  the  community.  Such 
shrubs  as  Hlac  may  be  found  growing  in  great  masses; 
frequently  one  clump  will  furnish  enough  small  shrubs 
for  a  school  yard,  the  original  clump  being  better  for 
having  been  thinned.  Spirea,  more  commonly  known 
as  bridal  wreath,  and  honeysuckle  are  to  be  found  in 
many  yards;  both  shrubs  are  very  desirable  for  the 
school  yard.  What  shrubs  are  commonly  found  in  your 
locality  .?  What  shrubs  can  you  furnish  from  your  own 
yard  or  from  a  near-by  woods.?  Shrubs  and  trees  can 
be  purchased  at  reasonable  prices  from  nurseries.  The 
members  of  the  class  should  write  for  catalogues. 

Planting. — In  general,  you  should  follow  the  direc- 
tions given  on  page  142  for  planting  a  tree.  The  plants 
which  are  to  be  transplanted  from  the  home  yards 
should  be  taken  up  the  same  day  they  are  transplanted, 
and  the  roots  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun  as  they 
will  dry  out  and  fail  to  grow.  If  it  is  necessary  to  take 
up  the  plants  before  the  planting  date  or  if  nursery 
stock  is  to  be  used,  the  plants  should  be  ''heeled  in" 
until  time  for  planting.  To  heel  in  the  plants,  dig  a 
trench  or  a  hole  in  the  ground  and  place  the  roots  in  it, 
covering  them  with  soil  which  must  be  kept  moist. 

You  must  not  attempt  to  do  more  than  you  can  do 
well.  Each  pupil  should  be  responsible  for  one  kind  of 
shrub  or  tree.     If  six  lilacs  are  needed,  one  or  two  boys 


PLANTING  THE   SCHOOL  YARD  29 

should  be  responsible  for  them  and  bring  them  to 
school  and  set  them  in  their  proper  places.  If  you  can 
enlist  the  interest  and  help  of  your  older  brothers  and 
your  father,  ask  them  to  come  with  you  to  the  school 
yard  on  the  day  set  for  the  planting. 

Pruning. — Do  not  be  afraid  to  prune  the  shrubs 
severely,  as  the  root  system  has  been  cut  down  a  great 
deal  when  the  plant  was  taken  from  the  ground  and  is 
not  able  to  supply  a  large  top  with  the  required  mois- 
ture. Shrubs  can  usually  be  cut  back  to  a  height  of 
about  two  feet.  Can  you  explain  why  plants  wilt  when 
they  are  taken  out  of  the  ground.? 

Watering. — Plenty  of  water  should  be  used  around 
the  roots  of  the  plants  when  they  are  set  in  the  ground, 
but  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  water  very  often  after 
that  time.  If  the  ground  becomes  very  dry  it  should 
be  thoroughly  soaked  with  water  as  it  does  the  plant 
little  good  to  sprinkle  the  ground.     Why.? 

Mulching. — A  mulch  or  covering  of  leaves,  straw,  or 
manure  should  be  placed  about  the  shrubs  and  trees 
after  the  freezing  weather  sets  in.  Can  you  explain 
why  the  mulch  should  be  used  and  why  it  should  be 
put  on  after  the  ground  is  frozen .? 

Completing  the  Map. — The  original  plan  may  need 
revising  after  the  yard  is  planted.  Each  shrub  and 
tree  should  be  located  on  the  map  and  named  with  its 
common  name.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  plants  and  write 
a  description  of  each,  telling  about  its  habits  of  growth, 
kind  of  flowers,  height,  time  of  blossoming,  etc. 


30  FARM  PROJECTS 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

The  Landscape. — Trees  and  shrubs  and  flowers 
should  make  an  appeal  to  every  person.  How  much 
more  beautiful  is  the  yard  that  is  broken  by  a  maple 
here,  an  oak  there,  and  a  birch  or  two,  than  the  bare 
grounds  which  glare  in  the  sun*s  light!  We  all  prefer 
a  walk  in  the  woods  to  a  walk  along  a  dusty,  barren 
road  or  field;  yet  most  of  our  school  yards  are  barren 
and  unattractive.  If  there  is  any  place  that  should  be 
made  inviting  it  is  the  school  yard  where  we  spend  so 
much  of  our  time  while  we  are  children. 

Poets  have  always  sung  the  praises  of  the  trees  and 
flowers.  Painters  have  made  these  works  of  nature  the 
models  for  a  large  number  of  their  works  of  art.  Why 
should  we  not  live  among  the  trees  and  flowers.?  No 
greater  monument  can  be  erected  to  a  schoolboy's 
memory  than  a  giant  oak  or  elm  which  he  planted  as  a 
boy,  or  a  clump  of  lilacs  giving  a  portion  of  their  beauty 
and  fragrance  to  every  passer-by. 

Arrangement  of  Plantings. — When  one  goes  into  the 
open  fields  or  woods,  he  finds  winding  paths,  irregular 
borders,  and  trees  and  shrubs  growing  in  groups  or 
clumps  without  any  definite  arrangement  other  than 
that  made  by  nature  as  the  seeds  were  scattered  by  the 
wind.  Even  the  streams  wind  their  way  among  the 
trees  and  hills,  and  no  straight  line  or  orderly  arrange- 
ment is  to  be  found  anywhere.  When  this  general 
style  of  planting  is  carried  out  in  our  yards  it  is  called 


PLANTING  THE   SCHOOL  YARD  31 

the  natural  style.  It  is  a  mistake  to  plant  trees  and 
shrubs  in  straight  rows  like  soldiers  or  sentinels  on  the 
school  grounds  when  all  around  nature  has  chosen  a 
freer  and  easier  method  of  grouping  the  plants.  The 
borders  should  be  planted  in  curved  lines  as  shown  in 
the  illustration  and  walks  should  ordinarily  be  curved 
to  fit  into  the  general  scheme  of  planting  although  it 
sometimes  happens  that  it  is  necessary  for  convenience 
to  build  straight  walks  in  public  places.  Trees  should 
be  placed  with  regard  to  their  use  as  shade  trees  and 
where  their  beauty  will  serve  as  a  background  for 
other  plants. 

The  Open  Lawn. — Shrubs  should  not  be  planted  at 
random  on  a  lawn,  but  should  be  planted  about  the 
border  so  as  to  form  a  framework  for  the  yard.  The 
broad  open  lawn  is  very  desirable  especially  in  school 
yards  where  plenty  of  room  is  necessary  for  play.  Long 
unobstructed  views  are  characteristic  of  the  open  coun- 
try and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  break  the  view 
from  inside  or  outside  the  yard. 

Grouping. — The  illustration  (Fig.  7)  shows  the  shrubs 
grouped  about  the  borders  in  a  natural  way.  It  is  not 
enough  just  to  plant  a  number  of  shrubs  together  in 
one  group,  but  the  taller  ones  should  be  planted  in  the 
rear  and  the  smaller  ones  arranged  in  front  and  planted 
close  enough  together  to  make  a  solid  mass  of  foliage 
when  the  shrubs  are  mature.  A  variety  of  size  and 
color  is  desirable  in  all  groups.  The  snowberry  shrub 
has  white  berries  which   remain  through  the  winter 


32 


FARM   PROJECTS 


while  the  barberry  bears  red  berries  which  also  remain 
through  the  cold  weather.  If  a  clump  of  snowberries 
is  planted  near  a  clump  of  barberries  there  will  be 
variety  in  size  and  color  and  yet  the  whole  group  will 


Fig.  8.  A  barren  yard  before  planting 

not  present  the  "hit-and-miss"  appearance  that  would 
result  if  the  shrubs  were  simply  scattered  about  the 
border. 

Vines. — Vines  should  be  used  freely  in  planting  the 
school  yard  as  they  make  good  screens  for  unsightly 
places  and  add  a  touch  of  life  to  surroundings  which 
can  not  be  secured  in  any  other  way.  The  sanitary 
closets  may  be  covered  with  vines  or  screened  with  a 


PLANTING  THE   SCHOOL  YARD 


33 


vine-covered  trellis.     Clematis  and  honeysuckle  make 
good  screens  when  used  on  a  trellis. 

Suggestion. — The    school    3^ard     should     be     partly 
planted  this  year.     It  is  very  important  to  outline  a 


Fig.  9.   Same  house  as  Fig.  8.   The  change  was  made  for  a  cost  of  less 
than  ten  dollars. 


plan  for  this  work.  Even  if  all  the  shrubs  cannot 
be  planted  in  one  year,  a  definite  plan  should  be  made 
and  followed.  Plant  as  many  as  can  be  obtained 
this  year  and  place  them  according  to  the  plan.  The 
expense  of  purchasing  plants  may  be  met  through 
school  activities.  A  part  of  the  income  from  a  bas- 
ket social,  a  silver  offering  taken  up   at  a  program 


34 


FARM   PROJECTS 


offered  by  the  school,  or  donations  from  some  of  the 
pubHc-spirited  patrons  may  be  used.  Sometimes  local 
nurseries  or  nurseries  within    the  state  will    be  glad 


Courtesy  Illinois  Department  Public  Instruction. 

Fig.  io.    A  rural  school  showing  "homelike"  surroundings 

to  donate  a  few  shrubs  for  school  grounds  in  order 
to  encourage  the  planting  of  home  grounds.  The 
class  should  make  every  effort  possible  to  enlist  the 
interest  and  support  of  all  the  patrons  of  the  school 
community. 


PLANTING  THE  SCHOOL  YARD 


35 


Problems  and  Review  Questions 

1.  What  flowering  shrubs  can  you  find  growing  in  the  com- 
munity ?  List  them  and  give  the  approximate  flowering  date  of 
each. 

2.  Where  in  the  fields  and  woods  have  you  seen  winding  paths  ? 
Can  you  tell  how  they  were  started  ? 


Fig.  II.    Rural  school  without  surroundings  shown 
IN  Fig.  io 

3.  What  annual  flowers  are  best  adapted  to  your  local  climate? 

4.  Draw  a  plan  for  a  flower  bed  in  your  home  yard,  and  name 
the  flowers  to  be  used. 

5.  Tell  how  to  transplant  a  young  tree. 

6.  When  do  farmers  set  out  orchard  trees  in  your  community? 

7.  Collect  pictures  clipped  from  nursery  catalogues  or  from 
farm  journals  to  show  the  value  of  planting  the  home  yard. 

8.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  your  home  yard  showing  the  build- 
ings and  the  trees  and  shrubs  which  are  already  growing.  What 
can  you  do  to  improve  the  planting? 


VI 

SELECTING   SEED   CORN 

Home  Work 

Field  Work  in  Seed  Selection.— Go  into  a  field  of 
white  corn  planted  near  a  field  of  yellow  corn.  How 
far  must  you  go  before  no  yellow  grains  can  be  found 
on  the  white  ears?  Note  the  proportion  of  ears  which 
hang  down.  How  many  inches  distant  from  the  ground 
are  the  lowest  ears  you  can  find?  How  many  inches 
from  the  ground  are  the  highest  ears  ?  Count  the  num- 
ber of  stalks  in  one  hundred  hills  of  corn.  Find  the 
average  number  per  hill.  Find  the  average  number  of 
ears  on  one  stalk  by  counting  the  number  of  ears  on 
one  hundred  stalks.  Select  enough  seed  to  plant  the 
corn  on  your  farm  next  year. 

The  Seed  Sack. — Tie  the  corners  of  a  grain  sack  so 
as  to  make  a  shoulder  strap.  Sling  the  sack  from  the 
shoulder,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  the  next  page. 
A  hoop  placed  in  the  top  of  the  sack  makes  it  more  con- 
venient. When  the  load  begins  to  get  heavy,  carry  it 
to  a  wagon  or  to  a  central  point  where  it  may  be  picked 
up  later.     How  many  ears  can  you  carry? 

The  Seed  Ear. — Select  the  corn  from  a  field  where 
the  corn  has  not  been  crossed  with  other  varieties. 

36 


SELECTING  SEED  CORN 


37 


The  ear  which  Is  chosen  for  the  seed  sack  is  to  furnish 

the  seed  for  almost  a  thousand  stalks  of  corn  next 

season.    This  means  that 

a  single  ear  should  grow 

into  about  twenty  bushels 

of  corn.     Use  great  care 

in  making  your  selection. 

Choose     well-matured, 

shapely  ears  of  medium 

size   which    hang   down. 

The  stalk  from  which  the 

ear  is   taken    should    be 

strong  and  vigorous.   It  is 

best  to  select  from  hills 

where    two    stalks    are 

growing.    Kernels  should 

be  deep  and  broad,  not 

shallow  or  pointed. 

Seasoning  the  Seed. — 
To  season  the  seed,  place 
the  corn  which  you  have 
selected  in  a  moderately 
warm  room.  Hang  the 
ears  from  supports  by  placing  them  in  a  swing  made 
of  twine.  Two  double  cords  crossed  each  time  an  ear 
is  put  in  place  should  be  used  to  bind  all  the  ears 
together.  Be  careful  to  place  the  corn  hanger  where 
the  mice  cannot  reach  the  corn.  If  you  suspend 
the  hangers  by  wires  the  mice  will  be  disappointed. 


Courtesy  Illinais  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  12.    The  seed  corn  sack 


59714 


38  FARM   PROJECTS 

Note  the  difference  in  the  time  it  takes  to  dry  corn  in 
the  crib  and  to  dry  the  seed  corn  that  is  hung  in  a 
warm  room.  Weigh  ten  ears  of  the  corn  from  week  to 
week  until  New  Year's  day  to  find  the  loss  of  mois- 
ture. Corn  may  be  stored  in  wooden  racks  or  in  wire 
racks.  The  latter  may  be  purchased  or  made  from 
woven  wire.  Make  suggestions  of  your  own  for  seed 
corn  racks. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

The  Ear. — ^We  have  already  learned  that  plants 
grow  not  to  produce  food  for  man,  but  to  produce  seed, 
by  means  of  which  the  plant  reproduces.  The  ear  of 
corn  is  the  result  of  a  year's  growth  of  the  corn  plant. 
All  the  energies  of  the  plant  have  been  directed  toward 
making  this  ear  of  corn.  We  think  of  it  as  valuable 
because  it  will  furnish  food  for  men  and  animals.  But 
what  is  more  important,  it  is  the  seed  for  next  year's 
corn  crop.  It  is  the  fruit  of  the  stalk  of  corn.  When 
the  ear  has  been  completed  the  plant  dies.  Most  an- 
nuals, plants  living  but  one  year,  die  as  soon  as  the  fruit 
or  seed  is  mature.  Biennials,  plants  living  two  years, 
usually  do  not  produce  seed  or  fruit  the  first  year. 

The  Kernel  or  Seed. — If  we  examine  the  kernel  of 
corn,  the  bean,  or  any  other  seed,  we  find  a  tiny  plant 
wrapped  within  the  seed.  One  may  think  of  this  tiny 
plant  as  being  in  a  basket  of  food,  for  the  seed  is  really 
the  food  which  this  tiny  plant  will  use  when  it  begins 
to  grow.     In  every  grain  of  corn  there  is  a  baby  corn 


SELECTING  SEED  CORN  39 

plant  which  will  produce  a  stalk  of  corn  when  the  grain 
is  planted  under  good  conditions. 

It  is  true  that  the  baby  corn  plant  found  in  the  grain 
does  not  look  much  like  the  stalk  of  corn  that  we  see  grow- 
ing in  the  field.  But  plant  a  grain  of  corn  in  some  moist 
sand  and  see  how  quickly  this  tiny  plant  begins  to  look 
like  a  real  stalk  of  corn.    The  newly  hatched  chick  differs 


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Fig.  13.  A  sample  of  good  seed  corn 

greatly  from  the  mother  hen  in  appearance.  Instead  of 
feathers  the  chick  has  down,  the  comb  is  undeveloped, 
and  the  color  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  mother  hen. 
So  it  is  with  the  baby  corn  plant  which  we  find  in  the 
kernel  of  corn;  it  has  not  yet  developed  the  earmarks 
of  the  mature  stalk  of  corn.  The  baby  corn  plant  needs 
protection  from  the  weather  as  much  as  the  baby  chick 
needs  protection.  Cold,  wet  weather  will  injure  either. 
Careful  Selection  Necessary. — At  the  University  of 
Illinois  two  plots  of  corn  were  planted  to  show  whether 
the  earmarks  of  corn  could  be  changed  by  selection  of 


40  FARM   PROJECTS 

seed.  One  plot  was  planted  with  kernels  from  an  ear 
of  corn  which  had  grown  low  on  the  stalk.  The  other 
was  planted  with  kernels  from  an  ear  which  had  grown 
high  on  the  stalk.  The  next  year  the  first  plot  had 
many  low  ears  and  the  second  had  many  high  ears. 
The  lowest  ears  from  the  first  plot  were  selected  for 
seed  for  this  plot  the  next  year.  The  second  plot  was 
planted  with  seed  from  the  highest  ears  found  in  the 
plot.  This  process  was  repeated  for  six  years.  At  the 
end  of  this  time,  the  average  height  of  the  ears  in  the 
first  plot  was  less  than  two  feet.  The  ears  in  the  other 
plot  averaged  almost  five  feet  from  the  ground. 

This  experiment  proves  to  us  that  the  kernel  of  corn 
will  produce  corn  much  like  the  mother  plant.  The 
corn  will  have  the  same  color  as  the  seed.  The  new 
stalk  will  be  like  the  stalk  from  which  the  seed  is  taken. 
If  the  seed  ear  grew  five  feet  from  the  ground,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  ears  in  the  next  crop  will  grow  about 
five  feet  from  the  ground. 

If  the  farmer  wishes  to  have  his  corn  hang  down  for 
husking,  he  should  select  seed  ears  that  hang  down. 
Ears  that  hang  down  shed  water  and  are  not  injured 
by  rain  and  snow  as  upright  ears  are. 

Place  to  Select  Seed. — There  is  but  one  place  to 
select  seed  corn;  that  is,  in  the  field  where  it  grows. 
When  you  pick  the  seed  ears  from  the  corn  in  the  crib 
you  cannot  tell  whether  the  ear  you  select  hung  down 
or  grew  upright  on  the  stalk.  You  cannot  tell  whether 
the  ear  grew  five  feet  or  two  feet  from  the  ground. 


SELECTING  SEED  CORN  41 

Time  to  Select. — Seed  corn  should  be  selected  before 
the  freezing  weather  sets  in.  However,  the  corn  should  be 
mature.  The  time  of  selecting  will  be  before  the  regular 
husking  time  in  most  places.  At  this  time  you  have  the 
whole  field  to  select  from.  If  corn  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  field  through  the  wet  freezing  weather,  the  baby 
corn  plant  or  embryo  in  the  seed  is  liable  to  be  injured. 

Storage  of  Seed. — After  the  corn  is  picked  it  should 
be  seasoned  thoroughly  in  a  moderately  warm  room. 
The  air  in  the  room  should  circulate  freely  in  order  to 
carry  away  the  moisture.  Good  storage  houses  for 
seed  corn  are  usually  provided  with  furnace  heat  and 
with  fans  which  force  the  air  through  the  racks  of  corn. 
The  author  examined  such  a  storage  room  filled  with  corn 
and  found  the  corn  in  excellent  condition  in  the  month 
of  January.  In  the  same  town  was  a  storage  room  with- 
out heat  and  without  ventilation;  in  fact,  it  was  an  old 
grocery  store.  The  shelves  had  been  filled  with  corn  in 
the  fall;  the  doors  and  windows  had  been  kept  closed. 
So  much  moisture  had  collected  in  this  room  that  the 
doors  of  the  building  were  warped.  The  corn  on  many 
of  the  shelves  was  covered  with  mold.  Corn  kept  under 
such  conditions  will  not  grow  into  strong  stalks  when 
planted. 

Problkms  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  On  the  map  of  the  neighborhood  which  has  been  outlined, 
shade  the  portions  which  were  planted  with  corn  last  year. 

2.  The  class  should  arrange  an  exhibit  of  seed  corn.  Each 
member  of  the  class  may  bring  a  ten-ear  sample  of  the  best  corn  he 


42  FARM   PROJECTS 

can  find.  Ask  one  of  the  corn  growers  of  the  community  to  come 
in  and  judge  the  samples.  How  many  shapes  of  kernels  can  you 
find  in  a  dozen  ears  ?     How  many  rows  on  each  of  ten  ears  ? 

3.  Make  up  an  exhibit  of  varieties  of  corn  grown  in  the  neigh- 
borhood by  using  one  ear  of  each  variety.  These  ears  may  be 
fastened  to  a  smooth  board  and  made  to  look  very  attractive. 
Note  the  differences  in  the  varieties. 

4.  Estimate  the  number  of  ears  required  to  plant  one  acre. 
Is  corn  drilled  or  checked  in  your  locality?  What  is  the  advan- 
tage of  each  method  of  planting? 

5.  What  are  some  earmarks  or  qualities  of  corn  which  you 
think  should  be  changed  by  selecting  seed  in  the  field? 

6.  What  can  you  do  in  order  to  change  these  qualities  in  your 
own  field  ? 


VII 
THE  WHEAT  CROP 

Home  Work 

Survey. — Make  a  survey  of  your  community  to  learn 
the  acreage  of  wheat  grown  and  after  the  data  has  been 
collected  from  the  farms,  shade  the  areas  on  your  out- 
line maps  which  are  to  be  planted  in  wheat  this  year. 
What  varieties  of  wheat  are  grown  ?  Is  the  wheat  hard 
or  soft?  Is  most  of  wheat  bearded  or  beardless?  Ask 
the  farmers  about  the  bearded  and  beardless  wheat. 
What  advantages  are  claimed  for  each  kind?  What 
is  the  usual  planting  date  in  your  community?  How 
much  is  sowed  per  acre  ?  What  crop  is  usually  followed 
by  wheat  ? 

The  Hessian  Fly. — Go  into  a  wheat  field  and  exam- 
ine a  number  of  stalks  for  the  Hessian  fly.  The  fly 
may  be  found  in  the  stalk  of  the  wheat  as  a  small  white 
worm  called  the  larva.  It  may  be  in  a  tiny  brown  case 
which  looks  like  a  flaxseed.  We  call  this  the  pupa. 
You  may  have  to  hunt  for  some  time  and  to  examine 
many  stalks  in  order  to  find  the  Hessian  fly.  If  the 
wheat  has  been  planted  very  late  perhaps  there  will  be 
no  flies.  Bring  specimens  of  the  larva  or  of  the  brown 
pupa  to  school  for  class  study.     How  does  the  fly  aff^ect 

43 


44 


FARM  PROJECTS 


<  > 


THE  WHEAT  CROP  45 

the  stalk?  What  Is  Hkely  to  happen  to  the  stalk  the 
next  spring?  (See  page  49  for  the  life  of  the  Hessian  fly/; 
Study  of  Flour. — Compare  wheat  bread  made  from 
high-grade  flour  with  other  breads,  such  as  cornbread, 
whole-wheat  bread,  and  rye  bread.  What  difi^erences 
in  color,  taste,  texture,  and  quality  do  you  find?  If  a 
flour  mill  is  available  in  a  near-by  town,  the  members 
of  the  class  should  visit  the  mill  and  study  the  differ- 
ent processes  in  flour  making.  Secure  samples  of  all 
the  products  made  from  wheat  which  are  used  on 
your  farm.  Name  other  products  which  you  have 
read  about. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Importance. — As  a  food  crop,  wheat  is  one  of  the 
most  important  grain  crops  of  the  world.  The  United 
States  produces  more  wheat  than  any  other  country, 
producing  more  than  a  billion  bushels  in  191 5.  Usually 
the  wheat  crop  is  less  than  that  amount.  Wheat  bread 
is  so  common  in  this  country  that  we  are  likely  to  con- 
sider it  the  common  diet  of  all  the  people  of  the  world. 
However,  there  are  many  people  who  have  never  tasted 
white-flour  bread.  Perhaps  one  half  of  the  population 
of  the  world  use  other  kinds  of  cereals  as  the  main  part 
of  their  daily  ration,  rice  being  the  main  food  cereal  in 
Oriental  countries.  The  importance  of  wheat  as  a  food 
was  evident  during  the  World  War,  when  the  movement 
of  great  armies  in  Europe  was  often  limited  by  the 
wheat  supply.     It  is  said  that  at  one  time  during  the 


46  FARM   PROJECTS 

war  there  was  only  enough  wheat  in  France  to  supply 
the  people  for  three  days,  but  more  was  coming  into 
the  country  from  the  United  States  every  day. 

Wheat  Areas  and  Yield  in  the  United  States. — The 
great  wheat  areas  in  the  United  States  are  in  the 
North  and  West,  Minnesota  and  Kansas  being  among 
the  greatest  wheat-producing  states.  The  North 
Central  States  and  the  Dakotas  also  produce  much 
wheat.  The  yield  of  the  ten  states  having  the  highest 
yields  in  191 8,  according  to  the  United  States  Year 
Book,  was  as  follows: 


I. 

Kansas 

137,056,000  bushels 

2. 

North  Dakota 

68,400,000  bushels 

3- 

Nebraska 

60,480,000  bushels 

4- 

Oklahoma 

46,240,000  bushels 

5- 

Illinois 

40,670,000  bushels 

6. 

Washington 

37,982,000  bushels 

7. 

Missouri 

32,721,000  bushels 

8. 

Minnesota 

29,116,000  bushels 

9. 

Ohio 

28,698,000  bushels 

10. 

South  Dakota 

26,282,000  bushels 

TjTpes  of  Wheat. — There  are  three  types  of  wheat: 
the  hard,  the  semi-hard,  and  the  soft.  The  harder 
wheat  is  grown  in  the  North  and  West,  where  the 
climate  is  dry,  while  the  soft  wheat  is  grown  in  the  more 
humid  climates.  Wheat  is  also  classified  as  spring 
wheat  and  winter  wheat.  Spring  wheat  is  grown  where 
the  winters  are  too  severe  for  winter  wheat,  while  in 
warm  sections,  winter  wheat  is  grown.     Spring  wheat 


THE  WHEAT  CROP  47 

is  also  grown  to  some  extent  as  far  south  as  St.  Louis, 
Missouri.  Winter  wheat  is  planted  in  the  fall  and  is 
ready  for  harvest  from  seven  to  eight  months  later. 
Most  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States  is  of  this 
type.  The  hard  wheats  make  a  higher  grade  of  flour 
for  bread  than  soft  wheats,  but  the  flour  made  from  the 
latter  is  better  for  pastries  than  the  hard  wheat  flour. 

Planting. — Wheat  requires  a  good  seed  bed,  well 
pulverized,  and  made  firm  by  much  working  and  rolling, 
experiments  having  proved  that  early  plowed  ground 
gives  the  best  results.  If  winter  wheat  is  to  be  planted 
in  October,  the  ground  should  be  plowed  in  August  or 
the  early  part  of  September,  thus  saving  moisture  and 
insuring  a  firm  seed  bed.  Plowing  at  this  time  also 
kills  many  weeds  which  would  otherwise  shed  their 
seeds  in  the  soil.  Winter  wheat  should  be  planted  as 
late  as  possible  to  escape  the  damage  done  by  the  Hes- 
sian fly,  which  lays  its  eggs  each  year  at  about  the  same 
time  in  the  fall.  If  the  wheat  is  planted  late,  the  flies 
lay  their  eggs  before  the  wheat  comes  up,  and  do  not 
damage  the  wheat.  The  seed  should  be  well  cleaned 
and  fanned  to  rid  it  of  light  grains  and  weed  seed. 

Cheat  in  Wheat. — Many  farmers  believe  that  wheat 
turns  to  cheat  after  a  few  years  if  the  seed  is  not  re- 
newed, but  this  is  not  true,  as  the  cheat  is  a  plant  very 
difl^erent  from  the  wheat  plant.  Cheat  seed  looks  like 
wheat,  except  that  it  is  smaller,  and  may  be  in  the  wheat 
seed  when  it  is  sown  without  being  noticed  by  the 
farmer.     It  spreads  very  rapidly,  a  few  grains  in  the 


48  FARM   PROJECTS 

seed  wheat  producing  large  quantities  the  next  year. 
Care  should  be  exercised  to  have  the  seed  wheat  free 
from  cheat. 

Care  of  the  Wheat  Field  in  Winter. — The  wheat 
must  Hve  through  the  winter,  and  frequently  it  is  in- 
jured by  weather  conditions.  A  long  dry  fall  with  a 
cold  dry  winter  injures  wheat  because  the  plants  do  not 
get  the  proper  start  after  planting.  Heavy  snows  dur- 
ing the  winter  are  considered  very  beneficial  to  wheat. 
Freezing  and  thawing  of  the  ground  injures  wheat  by 
*' pulling"  it  from  the  soil.  Damage  of  this  sort  can  be 
avoided  by  covering  the  ground  with  a  thin  layer  of  straw 
after  the  wheat  comes  up.  Every  boy  knows  that  the 
ground  in  winter  will  remain  frozen  under  boards  even 
when  the  surface  is  thawing  each  day  and  freezing  at 
night.  The  straw  has  the  same  eff^ect  as  the  boards, 
the  ground  remaining  frozen  during  the  day,  thus  pre- 
venting the  "pulling"  which  otherwise  would  occur. 
There  are  straw  spreaders  on  the  market,  which  spread 
the  straw  in  thin  layers.  The  straw  should  be  put  on 
late  in  the  fall,  after  the  ground  is  frozen. 

Diseases. — There  are  a  few  diseases  that  are  respon- 
sible for  great  losses  in  the  wheat  crop.  Smut  is  a 
disease  which  attacks  the  grains  of  wheat,  destroying 
them,  or  making  them  so  light  that  the  grain  is  worth- 
less for  feeding,  the  two  main  smuts  being  stinking  smut 
and  loose  smut.  The  former  can  be  eliminated  to  a 
very  great  extent  by  treating  the  seed  with  formalde- 
hyde, as  suggested  for  oats  smut.     The  loose  smut  is 


THE  WHEAT  CROP  49 

killed  by  treating  the  seed  with  hot  water,  from  128°  to 
132°  Fahrenheit,  for  five  minutes.  The  smuts  spread 
by  tiny  spores  or  ''seeds"  which  are  blown  by  the  wind, 
and  which  remain  on  the  seed  wheat.  Rust  is  a  disease 
which  attacks  the  leaves  of  wheat,  and  affects  it  by 
checking  growth.  If  you  were  to  walk  through  a  wheat 
field  which  was  afi^ected  with  rust,  your  shoes  and 
clothing  would  be  covered  with  a  fine  red  substance 
like  iron  rust.  There  is  no  remedy  known  for  the  dis- 
ease. Scab  is  another  disease  which  affects  the  head 
of  wheat,  injuring  the  covering  of  the  grains. 

Insects  in  Wheat. — There  are  two  insects  which  are 
very  injurious  to  wheat.  The  most  widely  distributed 
is  the  Hessian  fly  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  young  wheat 
soon  after  it  comes  up  in  the  fall.  A  little  white  worm 
which  hatches  from  the  eggs  eats  its  way  into  the  stalk 
and  remains  there  all  winter.  In  the  stalk  it  changes 
to  a  brown  pupa  or  "flaxseed,"  so  called  from  its  re- 
semblance to  a  flaxseed;  and  in  the  spring  the  adult 
fly  comes  out  of  the  stalk,  leaving  a  hole  where  it  rested 
during  the  winter.  This  is  very  injurious  to  the  wheat, 
having  the  same  effect  upon  the  wheat  plant  as  girdling 
or  barking  has  upon  a  tree.  Wheat  stalks  affected 
by  a  number  of  Hessian  flies  are  liable  to  fall  or  break 
when  they  begin  to  grow  up  in  the  spring,  because  the 
tiny  holes  left  by  the  flies  when  they  come  out  in  the 
spring  weaken  the  stalk  to  such  an  extent  that  it  cannot 
withstand  the  wind.  The  flies  which  come  from  the 
wheat  stalks  in  the  spring  lay  eggs  and  produce  another 


50  FARM   PROJECTS 

crop  of  worms,  but  the  wheat  is  so  far  along  at  this 
time  that  little  damage  is  done  by  the  spring  brood. 

Late  planting  in  the  fall  is  the  best  preventive,  be- 
cause if  the  wheat  comes  up  after  the  fly  has  laid  its 
eggs,  it  will  not  be  damaged  by  the  little  worms,  for  they 
remain  where  they  hatch  out, — probably  in  grass  stalks 
if  no  wheat  is  present. 

The  Chinch  Bug. — The  chinch  bug  has  proved  to  be 
a  very  dangerous  enemy  to  the  wheat  in  certain  sections 
of  the  United  States.  Perhaps  the 
area  most  seriously  affected  is  the 
wheat  section  within  a  radius  of  one 
hundred  miles  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri, 
where  this  insect  has  done  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  damage. 

The  chinch  bug  is  a  small  bug  which 
lays  its  eggs  in  the  wheat  or  oats  early 
Fig.  is.  in  the  spring,  just  as  the  plants  are 

(GREATLrENLrRGED)  bcgiuniug  thcir  growth.  The  insect 
does  not  have  a  "worm  stage,"  but 
hatches  into  a  tiny  light-colored  wingless  bug  resem- 
bling the  adult  bug  in  shape.  These  young  insects 
feed  on  the  growing  plants  near  the  crown  of  the  roots. 
As  the  insect  grows  it  changes  in  color  to  a  red  and 
then  to  grey.  The  wings  develop  gradually.  It  is  full 
grown  about  the  time  the  wheat  is  ready  to  harvest, 
but  it  does  not  fly  until  some  time  later.  Instead, 
the  bugs  crawl  from  the  wheat  fields  to  the  surround- 
ing fields.     At   this   time   they   do   great   damage   to 


THE  WHEAT  CROP 


51 


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52  FARM  PROJECTS 

corn.  The  writer  has  seen  corn  fields  destroyed  by 
the  chinch  bug  within  a  short  time  after  wheat  harvest. 
The  best  check  is  a  tar  Hne  spread  around  the  fields. 
The  bugs  will  not  cross  this  line  and  if  holes  are  dug 
at  intervals  along  the  tar  line,  the  bugs  fall  into  them 
as  they  crawl  up  and  down  the  line  trying  to  find  a 
place  to  cross.  The  holes  will  often  be  found  full  of 
chinch  bugs  within  a  short  time.  In  a  county  where 
chinch  bugs  were  very  widely  distributed  in  the  year 
1914,  the  author  saw  one  field  of  corn  almost  com- 
pletely destroyed  by  these  bugs  because  it  was  unpro- 
tected, while  another  field  of  corn,  saved  from  the 
attack  by  a  tar  line,  produced  forty  bushels  of  corn  per 
acre.  Chinch  bugs  live  during  the  winter  in  rubbish, 
dead  weeds,  fences,  and  other  shelters. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States,  shade  the  principal 
wheat-growing  areas. 

2.  Each  pupil  should  bring  a  sample  of  the  wheat  grown  at 
home  to  school  for  an  exhibit.     Compare  the  different  varieties. 

3.  Clip  articles  from  farm  journals  about  the  insects  and  dis- 
eases which  affect  wheat.  Bring  the  articles  to  school  for  discus- 
sion. 

4.  Write  a  composition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects: — 
"Making  Bread,"    "Threshing  Wheat,"    "Planting  Wheat." 

5.  Describe  the  damage  done  by  different  insects  and  diseases. 
Discuss  in  class  the  remedies  used  by  the  farmers  in  your  com- 
munity to  destroy  the  insects  and  to  prevent  diseases.  Which 
remedies  give  the  best  results  f 


THE  WHEAT  CROP  53 

6.  What  is  considered  a  good  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  in  your 
locality?  Is  there  a  large  variation  in  the  yield  per  acre  on  differ- 
ent farms?     Can  you  give  reasons  for  this  variation  in  yield? 

7.  Considering  the  cost  of  machinery  and  other  expense 
connected  with  raising  the  wheat  crops  on  your  farm,  how  many 
bushels  of  wheat  at  current  prices  will  your  crop  have  to  yield  per 
acre  to  pay  the  cost  of  producing  the  crop  ? 

8.  What  fertilizers  have  been  used  in  the  community  on  wheat 
ground?     What  results  have  been  obtained? 

9.  The  members  of  the  class  should  bring  to  school  stalks  of 
wheat  showing  rust  and  smut.  Also  collect  stalks  that  have  been 
injured  by  the  Hessian  fly. 

10.    Prepare  a  table  giving  the  different  wheat  diseases,  their 
effects  and  remedies.     Do  the  same  for  injurious  insects. 


VIII 
WEEDS 

Home  Work 

The  purpose  of  our  observation  of  weeds  as  they 
grow  in  the  field  is  to  learn  something  definite  about  the 
most  common  weeds  in  the  locality  and  to  try  to  dis- 
cover a  way  of  preventing  the  further  growth  and 
spreading  of  these  weeds. 

On  the  way  to  school,  count  the  number  of  difi^erent 
kinds  of  weeds  found.  It  will  be  interesting  to  learn 
which  member  of  your  class  can  find  most  kinds  of 
weeds.  Collect  weeds  and  bring  them  to  school  where 
they  may  be  studied.  The  teacher  will  aid  in  pressing 
these  specimens  to  make  up  a  school  exhibit  of  the  com- 
mon weeds.  Notice  the  tails  of  horses  or  the  wool  of  sheep 
to  find  seeds  of  injurious  weeds.  Collect  the  seed  of  cock- 
leburr,  tumbleweed,  milkweed,  plantain,  quackgrass, 
and  sticktight  and  try  to  find  out  how  they  might  be 
distributed  from  field  to  field.  Will  they  float  on  water.? 
Do  they  stick  to  clothing  or  animals?  Does  the  wind 
carry  them .?  Are  the  seeds  likely  to  be  found  in  seeds  of 
the  economic  crops  such  as  clover  ^  Collect  such  weeds  as 
you  can  find  which  have  beautiful  flowers.  Cut  off^  some 
of  the  common  weeds  and  watch  them  to  learn  whether 

54 


WEEDS  55 

they  come  up  again  from  the  roots.  Sprinkle  salt  or  brine 
about  the  roots  of  weeds  and  note  the  results.  Count 
the  number  of  weeds  in  a  square  rod  in  the  corn  field, 
or  in  any  other  field  where  a  cultivated  crop  is  growing. 
Do  horses  and  cattle  eat  any  weeds  found  growing 
on  your  farm.?  What  weeds  bear  seeds  most  abun- 
dantly .?  Estimate  the  number  of  seeds  on  a  smartweed. 
Where  have  you  seen  wild  lettuce  growing  abundantly.? 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Weeds  and  the  Damage  They  Do. — Weeds  are  un- 
desirable plants — they  are  "spongers,"  robbers,  para- 
sites, tramps.  The  weed  has  been  defined  as  a  plant 
out  of  place,  which  suggests  that  any  plant  may  be 
classed  as  a  weed  if  it  is  so  out  of  place  as  to  become  a 
nuisance  or  an  annoyance  to  the  farmer.  Professor  L.  H. 
Bailey  says:  "A  weed  is  a  plant  not  wanted.  There  are, 
therefore,  no  species  of  weeds,  for  a  plant  that  is  a  weed 
in  one  place  may  not  be  a  weed  in  another." 

Weeds  do  much  damage  to  crops.  Sometimes  they 
ruin  whole  fields  of  economic  plants  such  as  corn,  oats, 
and  wheat.  The  author  has  seen  wild  lettuce  growing 
so  thick  and  high  in  an  oats  field  that  no  oats  could  be 
seen  growing.  Morning  glories  sometimes  ruin  the 
corn  crop.  Such  weeds  as  ragweed,  smartweed,  and 
quackgrass  are  likely  to  be  found  in  the  garden. 

Some  weeds,  such  as  smartweed  and  the  horse  nettle, 
live   from   year   to   year,    and    are   called    perennials. 


56  FARM   PROJECTS 

Others  live  but  one  year,  coming  up  the  next  year  from 
the  seed  that  was  allowed  to  ripen  the  year  before.  An 
example  of  this  class  is  the  morning  glory.  Such  plants 
are  classified  as  annuals.  Others  such  as  the  wild 
carrot,  sometimes  called  bird's  nest,  are  called  biennials 
because  they  live  two  years. 

Kinds  of  Damage  Done. — Weeds  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  They  rob  the  plant  of  sunlight  by  growing  up  and  shading 
the  plants. 

2.  They  rob  the  other  plants  of  food  and  water.  Crops  like 
corn  are  cultivated  mainly  to  keep  down  the  growth  of  weeds.  The 
weeds  require  so  much  water  that  the  corn  plant  soon  suffers  if  the 
weeds  are  allowed  to  grow. 

3.  Weeds  make  a  farm  look  untidy.  They  show  shiftiessness 
on  the  part  of  the  farmer. 

4.  Weeds  in  a  crop  make  the  harvesting  processes  much  more 
difficult.  Any  one  who  has  shocked  wheat  or  oats  where  nettles 
or  thistles  were  growing  knows  what  trouble  these  weeds  cause 
the  farmer. 

5.  Some  weeds  injure  the  live  stock.  Burrs  injure  the  wool 
of  sheep.  Ragweed  and  wild  onion  cause  the  cow's  milk  to  have 
a  bitter  taste. 

6.  Grains  are  made  less  marketable.  Clover  seed  containing 
weed  seed  is  worth  less  than  clean  seed.  Wheat  containing  cheat 
is  less  valuable.  The  cheat  grains  impair  the  quality  of  the  flour 
made  from  wheat.  Much  grain  is  lowered  in  value  because  of  the 
presence  of  weed  seed. 

7.  It  is  because  of  the  presence  of  weeds  in  our  crops  that  so 
much  labor  is  required  in  preparation  of  the  soil  and  in  further 
cultivation.  Labor  in  raising  crops  can  be  greatly  reduced  if  the 
weeds  can  be  held  in  check  or  prevented  from  growing. 


WEEDS  57 

Weeds  Spread  Rapidly  and  Grow  Abundantly. — ^Weeds 
are  more  hardy  than  the  cultivated  plants.  They 
spread  more  rapidly  because  they  have  so  many  seeds. 
Single  large  plants  may  have  as  many  as  half  a  mil- 
lion seeds,  which  gives  them  a  marked  advantage  over 
the  ordinary  plants  that  are  cultivated.  The  seeds  are 
usually  easily  distributed  as  you  will  have  learned  by 
your  observation  of  the  weeds  mentioned  in  the  ques- 
tions. Some  of  the  weed  seeds,  mustard  for  example, 
live  for  many  years  so  that  weeds  may  come  up  one  year 
from  seeds  which  were  distributed  many  years  before. 

Control  of  Weeds. — There  are  many  things  which  a 
farmer  can  do  to  prevent  or  to  check  the  growth  of 
weeds.  He  should  be  sure  that  the  seed  which  he 
plants  is  free  from  weed  seed.  The  author  knows  of  an 
instance  which  illustrates  the  danger  from  sowing  un- 
clean seed.  A  man  bought  a  load  of  clover  seed  screen- 
ings which  he  supposed  would  contain  enough  clover 
seed  to  make  it  profitable  for  him  to  sow  it  on  his  field. 
Within  a  year  or  two  there  were  so  many  weeds  on  this 
field  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to  harvest  the  crop. 
It  would  have  paid  him  better  to  have  bought  a  single 
peck  of  clean  clover  seed  instead  of  the  load  of  screenings. 

Destroying  Weeds. — The  crops  should  be  rotated 
from  year  to  year.  Weeds  that  grow  in  the  clover  crop 
may  be  destroyed  the  year  following  by  cultivation  if 
corn  is  planted  in  the  field.  Weeds  should  be  kept  cut 
to  the  ground  in  fence  corners,  barn  yards,  and  other 
uncultivated  areas.      Crops  which   need   care   should 


58  FARM   PROJECTS 

be  cultivated  often  enough  to  keep  the  weeds  from  get- 
ting a  start.  Weeds  come  up  quickly  after  a  rain, 
hence  this  is  the  best  time  to  kill  them.  Sometimes 
weeds  may  be  destroyed  by  sheep.  If  the  corn  field 
is  weedy,  sheep  may  be  run  in  the  field  while  the  weeds 
are  yet  green  in  the  fall.  They  will  clean  up  the  field 
without  damaging  the  corn  to  any  great  extent.  Boys 
should  try  to  develop  a  hostile  attitude  toward  weeds. 
Do  not  neglect  to  pull  up  a  cockleburr  that  escapes  the 
cultivator;  it  takes  a  little  more  time,  but  will  save 
labor  and  waste  in  the  end.  The  community  should 
declare  war  on  weeds.  If  one  man  allows  weeds  to 
grow  unchecked  on  his  farm,  all  his  neighbors  will  suffer 
loss  of  crops  due  to  his  negligence,  because  seeds  are  so 
easily  distributed.  Remember  that  millions  of  dollars 
may  be  saved  to  the  country  if  the  growth  of  weeds  can  be 
checked. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  is  a  weed.? 

2.  What  are  the  three  classes  of  weeds.? 

3.  Give  the  common  ways  by  which  weed  seeds  are  distributed. 

4.  What  weeds  cause  milk  to  be  bitter.? 

5.  What  is  the  most  troublesome  weed  to  be  found  on  your 
farm? 

6.  In  what  ways  do  weeds  damage  the  farm  crops? 

7.  What  weeds  are  said  to  be  poisonous? 

8.  Why  do  weeds  have  a  better  chance  to  grow  than  cultivated 
crops  ? 

9.  Give  different  methods  employed  in  controlling  the  growth 
of  weeds  on  your  farm. 


IX 
CROP   ROTATION 

Home  Work 

Rotations  in  the  Community. — A  survey  of  the  com- 
munity should  be  made  to  determine  the  kinds  of  crops 
which  the  farmers  grow  and  the  order  in  which  they  are 
planted  in  one  field.  How  many  different  rotations 
are  found.?  What  grasses  and  clovers  seem  to  be 
grown  most  widely  in  the  community.?  Find  the  total 
area  which  was  planted  in  clover  this  year.  Each 
pupil  should  report  on  a  particular  part  of  the  school 
community.  What  is  the  total  area  of  land  repre- 
sented? What  per  cent  of  this  area  was  in  clover 
during  the  season.?  What  crop  is  usually  planted  after 
clover.?  What  crop  precedes  it  on  your  farm.?  Do 
farmers  plow  the  clover  crop  under.?  The  survey 
should  show  not  only  the  area  given  to  clover,  but  to 
other  crops  as  well.     Tabulate  as  follows: 


Farm 

Total 
Acreage 

Acres 

OF 

Clover 

Acres 

OF 

Alfalfa 

Acres  of  Other  Crops  Grown 

Pasture  Land. — How  many  acres  of  permanent  pas- 
ture land  are  there  on  your  farm.?      What  grasses  are 

59 


6o  FARM   PROJECTS 

used  mostly  for  pasture  in  the  community?  Make  a 
study  of  the  pasture  land  and  its  use  on  your  farm. 
Could  more  money  be  made  by  using  the  soil  for  a  cul- 
tivated crop  such  as  corn  or  wheat?  Would  it  be 
possible  to  supply  silage  or  other  green  crops  to  live 
stock  during  the  months  when  they  are  usually  on 
pasture?  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  such  a  plan. 

Forage  for  Live  Stock. — Make  a  list  of  all  roughage 
or  forage  crops  used  for  feed  on  your  farm.  Does  the 
farm  produce  all  the  hay  needed  for  the  live  stock? 
What  forage  crops  or  hays  are  fed  for  milk  production  ? 
What  forage  crops  are  fed  to  horses?  Estimate  the 
number  of  tons  of  hay  fed  in  one  year  on  your  farm. 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

What  Is  Rotation? — Rotation  of  crops  is  the  chang- 
ing of  the  crops  on  the  various  fields  of  the  farm  from 
year  to  year  so  that  there  will  not  be  a  continuous 
growth  of  one  crop  on  any  part  of  the  farm.  On  some 
grain  farms  a  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  and  clover  is  prac- 
ticed; that  is,  corn  is  grown  in  a  field  one  year,  oats  is 
grown  in  that  field  the  next  year,  and  clover  is  grown 
in  the  field  the  following  year.  By  dividing  the  farm 
into  fields  it  is  possible  to  have  a  rotation  on  the  differ- 
ent fields  and  to  have  all  the  crops  growing  each  year. 
There  are  many  advantages  of  crop  rotation  which 
deserve  mention  in  this  discussion. 


CROP   ROTATION  6i 

Advantages. — Not  only  is  crop  rotation  on  a  given 
field  desirable  but  more  than  one  crop  should  be  grown 
at  the  same  time.  If  but  one  crop  is  grown  on  the 
farm,  much  labor  is  required  at  the  time  when  the 
planting  and  the  harvesting  are  done,  while  at  other 
times  comparatively  little  labor  is  required.  There 
cannot  be  permanent  employment  for  labor  unless  crops 
are  grown  which  mature  at  different  times.  Another 
advantage  of  crop  rotation  is  that  weeds  are  killed  by 
cultivation.  If  the  whole  farm  is  planted  with  a  crop 
such  as  timothy,  which  does  not  require  cultivation, 
and  no  cultivated  crop  is  planted  for  several  years,  the 
weeds  will  gain  a  foothold  and  probably  crowd  out  the 
crop.  When  wild  lettuce  once  gets  a  foothold  in  the 
oats  field,  it  spreads  rapidly  and  unless  a  cultivated 
crop  is  planted  the  next  year,  the  lettuce  will  take  the 
crop.  (We  shall  learn  something  about  the  clovers 
in  Chapter  XXI  and  will  find  how  valuable  they  are  for 
feeding  animals  and  for  adding  fertility  to  the  soil.) 
By  rotating  the  crops,  the  advantages  of  clovers  may  be 
secured  and  the  fertility  added  by  legumes  will  thus  be 
distributed  over  the  farms. 

Live  Stock  and  Rotation. — Crop  rotation  is  good 
practice  for  the  live  stock  farmer,  because  if  but  one 
crop  is  grown  on  the  farm,  live  stock  cannot  be  fed  un- 
less much  feed  is  purchased;  thus,  by  growing  a  variety 
of  crops,  more  economy  in  feeding  will  be  realized. 

Increased  Yields. — Corn  yields  better  when  rotated 
with  other  crops.     The  claim  is  made  that  some  crops 


62  FARM  PROJECTS 

if  grown  too  long  on  the  same  field  poison  the  soil  and 
prevent  the  growth  of  that  crop.  Whether  there  is 
much  danger  of  soil  poisoning  or  not,  we  know  that 
crops  yield  better  when  they  are  not  grown  continuously 
on  the  same  field.  Corn  yields  much  better  when  rotated 
with  oats  than  when  grown  continuously.  This  fact 
has  led  some  farmers  to  believe  that  corn  and  oats  do 
not  require  the  same  kind  of  plant  food,  which  is  a  mis- 
taken idea.  Both  crops  take  the  same  food  elements 
from  the  soil  but  they  take  the  elements  in  different 
proportions. 

An  experiment  has  been  conducted  by  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station  since  1888  to  test  the  value  of  crop 
rotation.  In  this  experiment  three  plots  of  good  brown 
silt  loam  soil  have  been  used.  On  one  plot,  corn  has 
been  grown  continuously,  on  another  corn  and  oats  are 
rotated,  and  on  the  third  corn,  oats,  and  clover  are 
rotated.  The  average  yields  of  corn  during  ten  years 
of  cropping  (1908-1917)  are  as  follows:* 

Plot  No.  i  Plot  No.  2  Plot  No.  3 

Corn  continuously  Corn  and  oats  rotated  Corn,  oats,  and  clover 

loyears;  10  years;  10  years; 

28.3  bu.  37.6  bu.  40.7  bu. 

Corn  per  acre;  Corn  per  acre;  Corn  per  acre; 

average  10  crops  average  5  crops  average  3  crops 

1908-1917.  1908-1917.  1908-1917. 

The  soil  used  in  this  experiment  was  not  treated  in 
any  way  with  commercial  fertilizer,  the  difference  in 
yield  being  due  to  rotation  in  crops.  These  plots  are 
still  being  kept  up  and  are  giving  even  more  conclusive 

*  Bui.  No.  219,  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  U.  of  IlL 


CROP   ROTATION  63 

evidence  each  year.  Experiments  have  been  conducted 
in  many  other  places  proving  the  value  of  rotation.  No 
farmer  can  afford  to  grow  any  crop  continuously.  Cot- 
ton grown  continuously  will  destroy  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  just  as  continuous  corn  crops  do. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  rotation 
used  on  your  farm.     What  principles  of  rotation  are  involved? 

2.  Give  the  essential  points  of  crop  rotation  mentioned  in  the 
University  of  Illinois  Experiment. 

3.  At  current  prices  of  corn,  what  was  the  value  per  acre  of  the 
ten  crops  of  corn  produced  on  Plot  No.  i  from  1908-1917?  What 
was  the  average  value  per  acre  per  year?  Compare  these  values 
with  the  values  of  the  corn  crops  on  each  of  the  other  plots  during 
this  time. 

4.  The  five  crops  of  oats  grown  on  Plot  No.  2  during  the  ten- 
year  period,  1908-1917,  averaged  38.6  bushels.  What  was  the 
total  value  per  acre  of  the  corn  crop  and  oats  crop  on  this  plot 
during  the  ten-year  period?     Use  current  prices. 

5.  Would  the  grain  farmer  who  raised  no  live  stock  to  sell,  be 
likely  to  grow  the  same  crops  in  a  rotation  as  a  live  stock  farmer? 

6.  On  a  map  of  your  home  farm  indicate  the  crops  grown  this 
year.     What  crops  will  be  grown  next  year  on  the  various  fields? 

7.  Propose  a  three-year  rotation  of  crops  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions in  your  community.     Talk  this  over  with  your  father. 


X 

SOIL   FERTILITY 

Home  Work 

Yields. — Study  the  production  of  food  in  your  com- 
munity, and  collect  all  the  information  you  can  get 
concerning  the  yields  of  all  crops  grown  in  the  commu- 
nity, tabulating  each  crop  separately.  Use  the  follow- 
ing form  for  tabulation: 

Crop:  Corn 


Farm 

Number  of  Acres 

Average  Yield 

Total  Yield 

Value 

Mr.  A. 

40 

4^ 

1600 

5$  1 200 

Totals 

Causes  of  Variation  in  Yield. — What  factors  can  you 
observe  which  seem  to  cause  the  differences  in  yields  ? 
Learn  all  you  can  about  the  soil  which  yielded  the 
largest  crop.  How  does  it  differ  from  the  soil  which 
yielded  the  smallest  crop .?  On  which  fields  was  manure 
applied .?  What  differences  can  you  see  in  the  growing 
crop  where  manure  has  been  applied  and  where  nothing 
has  been  applied.?  Do  those  farms  which  produced  the 
largest  yield  grow  most  live  stock?  What  differences 
in  color  do  you  find  among  the  soils?  What  kinds  of 
fertilizers  are  used  on  the  soil?     Has  the  yield  of  the 

64 


SOIL   FERTILITY  65 

crops  on  your  home  farm  decreased  or  increased  during 
the  last  ten-year  period?  To  what  is  the  decrease  or 
increase  due?  Will  the  value  of  the  product  grown  on 
an  acre  of  ground  on  your  home  farm  purchase  as  much 
clothing  for  the  family  as  the  value  produced  by  the 
same  acre  ten  years  ago  would  have  purchased  at  that 
time  ? 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Importance  of  Increasing  Crop  Yields. — The  popu- 
lation of  the  United  States  is  increasing  more  rapidly 
than  the  production  of  food  products  is  increasing, 
which  is  one  cause  of  the  present  high  cost  of  living. 
The  demand  is  rapidly  becoming  greater  than  the 
supply,  and  as  there  is  comparatively  little  untilled 
land  at  present,  our  hope  for  the  future  lies  in  increased 
yields.  Experiments  have  proved  that  yields  can  be 
increased  greatly  by  proper  attention  to  the  soil.  The 
farmer  of  the  next  generation  cannot  farm  as  his  father 
and  grandfather  farmed,  or  the  world  will  suffer  from 
the  lack  of  sufficient  food. 

What  Is  Soil  Fertility  ?^We  have  learned  in  another 
chapter  that  all  plants  require  food  just  as  animals  re- 
quire food  to  keep  them  alive  and  to  make  them  grow. 
If  animals  are  shut  in  a  barn  yard  and  food  is  kept  away 
from  them,  they  will  soon  die.  Plants  will  not  live 
unless  they  are  furnished  with  plenty  of  food  and  water. 
Some  of  the  plant's  nourishment  comes  from  the  air 
and  if  the  plant  were  able  to  live  entirely  from  the  food 


66 


FARM   PROJECTS 


it  obtains  from  the  air,  the  soil  would  not  be  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  crop  production.  The  plant  cannot  live 
on  this  food  alone,  although  about  ninety-eight  per 
cent  of  its  weight  is  made  up  of  the  carbon  which  is 


Courtesy  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  17.    Showing  the  necessity  of  building  up  poor  land  by  the  use  of 

PLANT  foods,  if  FARMING  IS  TO  BE  PROFITABLE 

taken  from  the  air  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  There  are 
some  elements  of  plant  food,  mostly  mineral  elements, 
contained  in  the  soil  which  are  necessary  to  plant 
growth.  The  plant,  as  we  have  said,  requires  ten  differ- 
ent food  elements  or  substances  for  growth.    They  are: 


SOIL   FERTILITY  67 

(a)  Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  obtained  from  the  air  and 
water. 

(b)  Calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
and  nitrogen,  obtained  from  the  soil. 

If  an  abundance  of  all  the  elements  named  in  group  (b) 
is  contained  in  the  soil,  the  soil  is  said  to  be  fertile. 
If  the  soil  lacks  one  or  more  of  the  elements  named,  it 
is  said  to  be  unfertile  or  low  in  fertility.  Fertile  soil 
is  called  **rich"  soil,  and  unfertile  soil  is  generally 
known  as  "poor"  soil. 

How  Rich  Soil  Becomes  Poor. — Plants  live  on  the 
food  from  the  soil  in  much  the  same  way  that  horses 
live  on  the  grass  of  the  pasture.  The  horses  will  thrive 
as  long  as  plenty  of  grass  remains  in  the  pasture,  but 
when  the  pasture  gets  "low,"  the  horses  begin  to  lose 
flesh.  Horses  that  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  pas- 
ture lands  of  the  north  and  west  after  the  grass  is  gone, 
sometimes  die  of  starvation.  Plants  thrive  as  long  as 
there  is  plenty  of  food  in  the  soil  but  after  a  few  years 
of  continuous  cropping,  the  plants  do  not  thrive  so 
well  and  will  finally  cease  to  grow  unless  more  food  is 
applied  to  the  soils. 

Soils  may  become  unfertile  through  a  loss  of  plant 
food  due  to  the  washing  and  leaching  of  rains,  and  if 
soils  are  allowed  to  remain  without  care,  they  are  likely 
to  lose  much  food  in  this  way.  Hillsides  become  poor 
very  rapidly  due  to  the  rains  which  wash  the  plant  food 
down  into  the  valleys,  where  it  remains  to  make  the 
bottom  lands  richer  than  before. 


68  FARM   PROJECTS 

Earmarks  of  Poor  Soil. — One  can  tell  much  about  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  by  observing  the  crops  that  grow  on 
it.  Plants  that  grow  on  a  poor  soil  are  usually  smaller 
and  have  less  foliage  than  those  growing  on  a  rich  soil, 
and  the  color  is  not  so  dark  and  green  as  it  should 
be.  Corn  which  grows  on  a  poor  soil  usually  has  a 
yellow  color  rather  than  the  deep  green  color  which  it 
should  have.  Such  plants  as  red  sorrel  and  white  top 
are  likely  to  be  found  growing  on  sour  unfertile  soils. 
Drought  affects  crops  growing  on  poor  soils  much  more 
than  on  rich  soils.  Plants  that  have  plent}^  of  food  are 
stronger  and  are  better  able  to  withstand  the  effects  of 
dry  weather  because  they  have  made  a  better  growth. 
Rich  soils  cause  plants  to  grow  more  rapidly  and  thus 
reach  maturity  earlier,  although  plants  growing  on  poor 
soil  sometimes  become  dry  and  stop  growth,  thus 
apparently  reaching  maturity  at  an  early  date.  Real 
maturity  has  not  as  a  rule  been  reached  in  such  in- 
stances. 

Food  Elements  Most  Needed. — As  stated  before, 
food  is  obtained  from  the  air  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant, 
while  the  remainder  must  be  obtained  from  the  soil. 
There  is  an  abundant  supply  of  iron  in  the  soil  to  supply 
the  crops.  The  required  substances  are  found  in  most 
soils  with  the  exception  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium.  We  shall  learn  that  nitrogen  may  be  se- 
cured by  growing  such  crops  as  clover,  alfalfa,  and  soy- 
beans, but  phosphorus  and  potassium  must  be  applied 
to   the   soil   in   the   form  of  fertilizer  of  some   kind. 


SOIL   FERTILITY  69 

Barnyard  manure  contains  all  three  elements  and  will 
increase  the  yields  of  crops.  Farmers  are  likely  to 
underestimate  the  value  of  the  manure  produced  on 
the  farm.  If  the  manure  is  piled  out  of  doors  and 
exposed  to  rain  and  snow  for  several  months,  from 
one  half  to  two  thirds  of  its  value  as  a  fertilizer  will 
be  lost.  This  loss  is  due  to  "heating/'  and  to  washing 
from  rains.  Manure  should  be  kept  in  concrete  pits, 
preferably  under  cover,  or  hauled  to  the  fields  and 
spread  frequently.  Progressive  farmers  rotate  the 
crops  and  *'plow  under"  some  green  crop,  usually 
clover,  once  every  three  or  four  years.  This  improves 
the  condition  of  the  soil  and  makes  it  richer. 

Value  of  Fertilizers. — While  it  is  true  that  yields 
can  be  increased  by  applying  large  quantities  of  manure 
to  the  soil  and  by  plowing  clover  under,  it  is  also  true 
that  there  are  some  substances  which  cannot  be  sup- 
plied in  large  enough  quantities  by  this  method. 
Farmers  use  large  quantities  of  ground  rock  phosphate 
which  is  a  rock  containing  the  phosphorus  needed  by 
plants.  This  rock  is  taken  from  the  quarries  in  Idaho, 
Tennessee,  and  some  other  states  where  it  is  found 
in  large  quantities,  then  ground  or  crushed  until  it 
is  very  fine,  and  put  on  the  soil.  About  a  half  ton 
per  acre  is  considered  a  fair  amount  to  use.  Bone 
meal,  a  finely  pulverized  substance  made  by  grinding 
the  bones  of  animals,  is  also  used  extensively  and 
is  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  increasing  crop  yields 
quickly.    Other  forms  of  mineral  fertilizers  are  used  by 


JO  FARM  PROJECTS 

farmers  in  order  to  increase  crop  yields.  Fertilizer 
companies  sell  many  brands  of  fertilizers  called  "com- 
plete fertilizers"  because  they  contain  all  the  mineral 
substances  usually  lacking  in  soils,  but  most  of  these 
fertilizers  are  expensive  and  are  not  so  profitable  to 
the  farmer  as  the  ground  rock  phosphate,  limestone, 
and  manure. 

The  important  point  to  be  remembered  in  connection 
with  soil  fertility  is  that  farmers  should  grow  clover 
and  turn  under  some  green  crops  of  it  in  order  to  make 
the  soil  more  fertile.  Farmers  should  consult  the  agri- 
cultural agent  in  the  county  or  write  to  the  state  experi- 
ment station  to  find  out  what  kinds  of  fertilizer  are  best 
for  the  soils  in  the  community. 

Review  Exercises 

1.  The  largest  wheat  crop  produced  in  the  United  States  was 
1,000,000,000  bushels.  If  five  bushels  of  wheat  make  one  barrel 
of  flour,  from  which  240  loaves  of  bread,  each  weighing  one  pound, 
may  be  made,  how  many  loaves  of  bread  per  person  could  have 
been  made  in  191 5,  when  this  crop  was  produced?  The  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States  at  that  time  was  approximately  100,000,- 
000  persons.  Assume  that  all  the  wheat  remained  in  this  country 
and  was  made  into  flour. 

2.  How  many  loaves  of  bread  could  have  been  made  from  the 
wheat  produced  on  your  farm  this  year.? 

3.  What  per  cent  of  the  crops  produced  on  your  farm  this  year 
was  sold  from  the  farm? 

4.  Give  suggestions  for  improving  the  crop  yields  on  your  farm. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "plant  food"? 


SOIL  FERTILITY  71 

6.  Give  examples  of  the  use  of  fertilizer  in  your  community, 

7.  Make  a  study  of  one  or  two  fields  on  your  farm  to  find  out 
what  fertilizer  should  be  used  this  year. 

8.  If  crops  look  yellow,  it  is  likely  that  the  soil  does  not  con- 
tain enough  nitrogen.  Observe  the  crops  in  your  community  to 
determine  whether  nitrogen  is  needed  in  the  soil. 


XI 

THE  USE  OF  LIMESTONE  ON  SOILS 

Home  Work 

The  exercises  to  be  worked  out  at  home  in  connection 
with  the  use  of  Hme  will  consist  of  a  few  simple  experi- 
ments which  every  boy  and  girl  can  easily  perform. 
The  purpose  of  these  experiments  is  to  show  the  effect 
of  lime  upon  soils. 

1.  Add  a  half  teaspoonful  of  baking  soda  to  a  little  vinegar  in 
a  glass  and  note  the  result.  Taste  this  foaming  liquid  as  soon  as 
the  soda  is  stirred  into  the  vinegar,  then  taste  the  liquid  that 
remains  after  the  foam  has  disappeared.  What  difference  do  you 
notice?  The  soda  corresponds  to  the  limestone  and  the  vinegar 
to  the  acid  in  the  soil.  The  action  of  the  soda  and  vinegar 
is  similar  to  that  of  limestone  and  acid  in  the  soil. 

2.  Place  a  lump  of  quicklime  in  a  box  and  add  water  slowly. 
What  happens?  Compare  the  quicklime  with  lime  which  has 
been  airslaked  by  remaining  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  long  time.  If 
limestone  is  available,  compare  it  with  other  forms  of  lime.  Com- 
mon marble  is  limestone.  Add  some  vinegar  to  a  piece  of  marble 
or  limestone  and  note  what  happens  after  a  few  days'  time. 

3.  Obtain  prices  on  limestone  in  carload  lots  delivered  to  your 
town. 

4.  Is  limestone  used  in  your  community?  Ask  some  of  the 
farmers  to  tell  you  why  they  purchase  limestone.  How  much  is 
put  on  an  acre  of  soil? 

72 


THE  USE  OF  LIMESTONE  ON  SOILS        73 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Sour  Soils. — Many  soils  become  sour  after  they  have 
been  cropped  for  long  periods  of  time.  A  sour  soil  is 
one  which  contains  some  acid.  Such  soils  do  not  con- 
tain enough  acid  to  make  them  like  vinegar  to  the  taste, 
but  do  contain  enough  to  show  acid  when  tested  and 
to  have  a  bad  effect  upon  crops. 

Test  for  Acid. — The  methods  of  testing  for  acid  in 
soil  are  simple,  the  simplest  test  being  the  litmus  paper 
test.  Litmus  paper  is  paper  which  is  saturated  with 
litmus,  a  kind  of  blue  dye,  which  turns  red  when  it 
comes  in  contact  with  acid.  When  the  red  litmus  is 
then  placed  in  contact  with  an  alkali,  such  as  common 
ash  lye  or  washing  lye,  the  blue  color  is  restored. 
When  blue  litmus  paper  is  placed  in  contact  with  wet 
soils  containing  acid,  it  turns  pink  or  red  because  of  the 
effect  of  the  acid  on  the  litmus.  If  no  acid  is  present 
in  the  soil,  the  paper  does  not  change  color.  The  paper 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  wet  soil  for  ten 
minutes.  Litmus  paper  costs  very  little,  and  may  be 
purchased  at  any  drug  store. 

Effect  of  Acid  in  Soils. — Legumes  such  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  and  soy-beans  do  not  thrive  in  sour  soils.  Soil 
may  become  so  sour  that  clover  will  not  grow  at  all. 
Acid  in  the  soil  checks  the  growth  of  most  other  crops. 
A  few  crops  such  as  redtop  seem  to  thrive  in  sour  soils, 
red  sorrel  growing  abundantly  in  sour  soils.  Many 
other  weeds  will  be  found  growing  on  sour  soils  where 


74 


FARM  PROJECTS 


THE  USE  OF  LIMESTONE  ON  SOILS        75 

clover  will  not  grow.  If  red  sorrel  is  found  in  a  field, 
it  is  a  clear  indication  that  the  soil  is  sour  and  needs 
lime. 

Improving  Sour  Soils. — ^The  first  step  in  improving 
sour  soils  is  the  addition  of  something  which  will  destroy 
the  acid.  You  have  found  by  adding  soda  to  vinegar 
and  allowing  it  to  stand  a  few  minutes  that  the  sour- 
ness has  been  taken  from  the  vinegar.  Soda  would 
have  the  same  effect  upon  the  acid  in  the  soil,  but  of 
course  no  farmer  could  afford  to  buy  such  an  expensive 
substance  to  put  on  his  soil.  Lime  will  act  in  the  same 
way,  destroying  the  acid  present;  and  as  it  is  com- 
paratively inexpensive,  it  is  being  used  very  widely  to 
destroy  the  sourness  in  soils.  Quicklime  is  usually 
thought  to  be  too  caustic;  that  is,  it  will  burn  the  roots, 
leaves,  and  other  organic  matter  in  soils  and  should  not 
be  used.  Slaked  lime  may  be  applied,  but  it  is  more 
expensive  than  limestone.  The  best  form  to  use  is 
the  limestone  which  comes  directly  from  the  quarry. 
This  stone  is  crushed  and  applied  to  the  soils  as  a 
finely  pulverized  rock.  Quicklime  is  obtained  from 
limestone  by  partially  burning  the  limestone  or  lime 
rock  in  kilns. 

How  to  Apply. — The  simplest  way  to  apply  lime- 
stone is  to  spread  it  with  shovels  from  the  wagon  bed 
as  the  load  is  hauled  over  the  ground,  but  many  farmers 
consider  that  this  method  requires  too  much  hard  work 
and  use  a  limestone  spreader.  The  spreader  looks 
much  like  a  grain  drill  and  spreads  the  lime  as  a  drill 


76  FARM  PROTECTS 

drops  the  grain.  When  this  method  is  followed,  the 
lime  is  usually  hauled  to  the  field  and  piled  in  conven- 
ient places  where  the  spreader  may  be  filled.  One 
method  is  to  attach  the  spreader  to  the  rear  end  of  a 
wagon  which  is  loaded  with  limestone.  One  man 
drives  the  team  while  another  keeps  the  spreader  filled 
with  limestone,  but  of  course  this  makes  a  very  heavy 
load  for  the  horses  or  tractor  to  draw. 

If  soils  are  very  sour,  that  is,  if  they  are  so  sour 
that  clover  does  not  grow  readily,  from  two  to  four  tons 
of  limestone  should  be  applied  per  acre,  at  first.  The 
county  agricultural  agent  can  give  definite  information 
regarding  particular  soils. 

When  to  Apply. — Limestone  may  be  applied  at  any 
time  in  the  year  with  good  results.  A  plan  followed  in 
some  communities  is  to  apply  it  on  the  frozen  ground 
during  the  winter  when  work  is  slack.  It  may  be  ap- 
plied on  the  wheat  ground  just  before  sowing  time.  It 
is  best  not  to  turn  the  limestone  under  by  plowing  when 
it  is  first  applied,  as,  when  this  is  done,  the  limestone 
does  not  affect  the  acid  in  the  top  layer  of  soil  to  any 
great  extent,  and  this  layer  is  the  important  one  for 
crop  growth. 

Results  from  the  Use  of  Lime.— The  use  of  lime  on 
soils  which  were  very  sour  has  more  than  doubled  the 
former  yield  of  clover;  and,  through  the  clover,  has  in- 
creased the  yield  of  other  crops.  In  191 8  the  average 
wheat  yields  on  ten  experiment  fields  operated  by  the 
University  of  Illinois  in  the  sour  soil  area  were  as  follows : 


THE  USE  OF  LIMESTONE  ON  SOILS        'jj 

Average  Yields  of  Wheat  on  Ten  Illinois  Experiment  Fields* 

Plot  i  Plot  2  Plot  3 

Nothing  applied  to  the  soil       Farm  manure  put  on  soil       Manure  and  limestone 

added  to  soil 
1918— 6.2  bu.  wheat  per  1918 — 8  bu.  wheat  per  1918 — 15. i   bu.  wheat 

acre  acre  per  acre 

The  yields  given  above  represent  the  average  yields 
of  ten  plots  of  ground  located  in  different  sections  of 
Illinois  where  the  soil  was  sour.  Compare  these  yields 
with  the  yield  of  wheat  on  your  home  farm.  These 
fields  had  been  farmed  by  the  University  for  different 
periods  ranging  from  one  to  seven  years,  and  crop 
rotation  including  legumes  was  practiced.  The  lime 
was  very  beneficial  to  the  wheat  crop,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  results.  The  lime  made  the  soil  sweet  and 
made  it  possible  to  grow  clover,  which  when  turned 
under  enriched  the  soil  for  wheat.  In  1918,  the  yields 
were  not  so  great  as  in  191 7,  but  the  increase  due  to 
limestone  is  very  evident.  These  same  fields  when 
treated  with  manure,  limestone,  and  rock  phosphate 
yielded  27  bushels  in  1917,  and  19.7  bushels  in  1918, 
showing  that  when  phosphate  was  used  in  addition  to 
limestone  even  greater  yields  were  possible. 

Extent  of  the  Use  of  Limestone. — When  the  neces- 
sity for  more  food  products  was  made  evident  by  the 
World  War,  farmers  at  once  began  to  make  every  effort 
to  increase  production.  The  demand  for  limestone  in 
areas  where  sour  soil  was  limiting  crop  yields  was  so 
great  that  orders  could  not  be  filled.     In  some  instances 

*  Illinois  Experiment  Station  Circular  229. 


78  FARM   PROJECTS 

single  counties  report  that  more  than  two  hundred  car- 
loads of  lime  were  used  in  a  single  season.  Such  facts 
tell  us  that  farmers  no  longer  believe  that  the  farms  will 
produce  crops  year  after  year  without  the  use  of  ferti- 
lizers, and  that  farmers  have  learned  the  value  of  lime- 
stone. This  material  is  rapidly  becoming  a  necessity  on 
the  farm. 

Review  Exercises  and  Questions 

1.  Describe  the  action  of  limestone  on  sour  soils. 

2.  What  plants  grow  on  sour  soils?  Do  you  find  these  plants 
growing  in  your  community? 

3.  How  much  limestone  would  be  required  to  cover  the  tillable 
soil  on  your  father's  farm,  applying  four  tons  per  acre? 

4.  At  $2  per  ton,  what  would  the  above  amount  of  lime  cost  ? 

5.  A  carload  of  lime  contains  about  forty  tons.  How  much 
can  you  haul  with  a  team  and  wagon?  How  many  loads  would 
you  have  to  haul  to  unload  a  carload?  Could  you  unload  a  car 
in  the  two  days  allowed  by  railroad  companies?  Why  do  railroad 
companies  allow  the  farmer  only  two  days  to  unload  a  car? 

6.  In  the  experiment  mentioned,  limestone  increased  the  wheat 
yield  in  1917,  12.7  bushels  per  acre.  At  the  present  price  of  wheat, 
how  much  limestone  at  $2  per  ton  could  be  purchased  with  the 
increase  ? 

7.  Suppose  your  father  owned  land  like  the  soil  used  in  the  ex- 
periment and  grew  one  crop  of  wheat  every  three  years.  If  no 
fertilizer  is  applied,  how  many  bushels  per  acre  will  be  obtained 
from  the  four  crops  of  wheat  grown  during  the  next  twelve  years, 
if  the  yield  is  the  same  as  that  obtained  in  Plot  i  in  1918?  What 
will  be  the  value  at  current  prices  ?  If  the  land  is  treated  with  lime- 
stone and  manure  how  much  money  will  he  receive  per  acre  for  the 
four  crops,  assuming  the  yield  to  be  the  same  as  on  Plot  3  in  1918. 


XII 
CORN  JUDGING 

Home  Work 

Each  pupil  should  carefully  select  a  ten-ear  sample 
of  corn  from  the  field  or  from  the  crib  and  bring  it  to 
school  for  judging  purposes.  Select  the  ears  as  nearly- 
alike  in  shape,  size,  and  color  as  is  possible.  The 
laboratory  work  to  be  done  in  corn  judging  will  be  done 
at  school.  There  should  be  several  samples  on  exhibit. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  shell  off  any  of  the  kernels 
in  handling  the  corn.  The  ears  may  be  tied  in  a  bundle 
and  then  wrapped  to  prevent  the  kernels  from  being 
shelled  off  as  the  sample  is  being  carried  to  school. 
The  sample  should  be  labeled  with  a  tag  bearing 
your  name. 

Class  Exercise 

Aim. — The  aim  of  the  work  in  corn  judging  should 
be,  not  necessarily  to  become  expert  corn  judges,  but 
to  learn  to  select  seed  corn  more  intelligently.  You 
can  probably  get  much  help  from  the  farmers  in  your 
community.  At  first,  an  ear  of  corn  is  likely  to  be 
just  an  ear  of  corn  to  most  of  you,  much  the  same  as  a 
word  is  a  word  to  the  primary  pupil  before  he  has 

79 


8o  FARM   PROJECTS 

learned  to  tell  one  from  another  and  to  see  the  differ- 
ences between  them.  The  work  this  month,  however, 
furnishes  a  splendid  opportunity  for  you  to  learn  to  see 
differences  and  variations  in  seed  corn. 

Value  of  Points. — Pads  of  score  cards  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  school  supply  companies,  or  made  up 
from  the  one  on  page  84.  The  score  card  is  intended 
to  be  a  guide  to  aid  in  the  judging  of  corn,  and  the  num- 
ber of  points  given  to  each  part  are  for  comparison. 
Unless  you  keep  this  point  in  mind,  you  are  likely  to  get 
the  idea  that  the  color  of  the  corn  is  ten  per  cent  of  its 
total  value.  This  is  not  true,  as  the  ten  per  cent  is 
assigned  as  a  basis  for  comparison.  The  score  card 
may  be  used  as  a  guide,  but  the  results  which  you 
get  will  depend  entirely  upon  your  ability  to  see  the 
differences  and  to  compare  these  differences  fairly. 
The  points  on  the  score  card  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups.  Breed  characteristics  are:  color,  type,  shape, 
and  size.  Individual  characteristics  are:  tips,  butts, 
uniformity,  space  between  rows  and  between  kernels, 
percentage  of  corn,  length,  circumference,  and  market 
condition. 

Study  of  the  Ear. — Much  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  breed  characteristics,  since  they  are  important 
in  seed  corn.  Rules  for  applying  the  score  card  values 
may  be  found  on  the  score  card.  Begin  by  studying 
an  ear  of  corn,  applying  the  points  indicated  on  the 
score  card  to  a  single  ear  in  order  to  fix  the  meaning  of 
the  terms  and  rules  to  be  used  in  scoring  corn.     Each 


CORN  JUDGING  8r 

pupil  should  select  two  ears  of  corn  at  random  from 
samples  on  hand  and,  without  any  suggestion  from  the 
teacher,  should  list  all  the  differences  he  is  able  to  see. 
Classify  these  differences  under  the  two  heads  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Type. — Special  study  of  corn  with  regard  to  type  is 
necessary  for  selecting  seed.  Type  is  determined  by 
the  character  of  the  kernel,  and  the  general  make-up 
of  the  ear,  some  kernels  being  smooth  and  some  rough 
in  nature,  while  some  are  of  different  shapes.  There 
is  as  much  difference  between  an  ear  of  corn  having  a 
rough  kernel  and  an  ear  having  a  very  smooth  kernel 
as  there  is  between  a  draft  horse  and  a  driving  horse. 
A  farmer  usually  makes  up  a  team  which  is  to  draw  the 
plow  by  using  two  horses  of  the  draft  type,  and  not  by 
using  one  draft  horse  and  one  light  driving  horse,  but 
most  cribs  of  corn  show  corn  of  decidedly  different 
types.  Pick  out  ears  representing  various  types  of 
corn.  Visit  cribs  or  bring  reports  on  cribs  at  home, 
showing  the  various  types  of  corn.  Note  that  there 
can  be  no  "uniformity"  of  samples  unless  there  is  but 
one  type. 

Color. — Color  in  itself  does  not  affect  the  food  value 
of  corn  very  much,  if  at  all.  Color  is  a  breed  earmark. 
Uniformity  of  color  indicates  careful  selection,  and  food 
values  and  yield  may  be  affected  by  selection.  It  is 
important  then  to  have  one  color  and  to  keep  this  color 
in  mind  in  selecting  seed.  Note  the  various  shades  and 
combinations  of  color  to  be  found  in  a  single  field  or 


82  FARM   PROJECTS 

crib  where  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  selection 
of  seed.* 

Shape  and  Size. — Shape  and  size  are  breed  charac- 
teristics which  help  to  determine  the  yield,  and  yield 
is  the  big  factor  to  be  considered  in  the  selection  of 
seed  corn.  Compare  a  cylindrical  ear  with  a  pointed 
ear  as  to  weight  and  percentage  of  corn  on  the  cob  by 
shelling  the  two  ears  and  weighing  the  grain  and  cobs 
of  each. 

Uniformity  of  Tips  and  Butts. — Much  attention  should 
be  given  to  uniformity  of  exhibit  when  scoring  ten- 
ear  samples,  but  beginners  are  likely  to  attach  too 
much  weight  to  the  value  of  tips  and  butts  when  scoring 
corn.  When  seed  corn  has  been  selected  with  a  great 
deal  of  attention  to  the  way  tips  and  butts  are  filled, 
ears  may  become  shorter  and  smaller,  thus  reducing 
the  yield.  It  is  important  then  to  select  rugged  ears. 
An  ear  with  rows  running  straight  to  the  tip,  without 
the  loss  of  any  rows,  although  the  tip  may  not  be  en- 
tirely covered,  is  preferable  to  an  ear  the  tip  of  which  is 
entirely  covered,  but  which  has  kernels  growing  small 
and  rows  becoming  crooked  toward  the  tip. 

Kernels. — Compare  kernels  of  different  shapes. 
Shell  the  corn  from  an  ear  having  pointed  kernels  and 
from  an  ear  having  broad  deep  kernels,  weigh  corn  and 
cob,  and  determine  the  percentage  of  corn  on  each  ear. 
The  shape  of  the  kernel  has  much  to  do  with  germination 

*  Note  to  Teacher. — Some  attention  may  be  given  here  to  the  principle  of  plant 
breeding — "Like  begets  like."   Present  examples  which  illustrate  this  principle. 


CORN  JUDGING 


83 


and  the  early  growth  of  the  seed.  Corn  with  small 
pointed  kernels  may  germinate,  but  its  early  growth 
will  not  be  so  vigorous  as  it  would  be  if  the  kernel  were 
larger.     Plant  seed  of  different  shapes  in  boxes  of  moist 


.    ^B  ^A  ^^ 


Fic;.  19.    Kernels  of  corn  showing  different  shapes.    Note  size  of  germ. 

sand  and  record  the  time  for  germination  of  seed  in 
each  instance  and  note  the  early  growth  in  each  in- 
stance. The  kernel  has  wrapped  up  within  its  coat  the 
possibilities  of  the  new  corn  plant,  and  this  new  plant 
will  possess,  in  general,  the  earmarks  of  the  mother  plant 
that  produced  the  grain.  The  only  way  to  select  seed 
corn  is  to  go  into  the  field  and  select  the  mother  plants. 


84 


FARM  PROJECTS 


Com  Festival. — Arrange  for  a  corn  festival  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  month.  Poems  relating  to  corn, 
essays  on  corn  selection,  a  demonstration  of  scoring  corn, 
and  a  talk  on  types  or  uses  of  corn,  may  be  included. 
A  judging  contest  open  to  every  one  may  be  made  a 
feature  of  the  day.  If  possible,  a  corn  show  should  be 
held.  Obtain  the  services  of  disinterested  persons  who 
are  competent  to  judge  corn  to  award  the  ribbons  or 
prizes. 

A  Score   Card  for  Corn 


Characters  to  be  Judged 

Points 

I 

2 

3                 4 

S 

I.    Uniformitv  of  exhibit 

5 
10 
10 
5 
5 
5 

10 

10 

5 

5 

10 
10 
10 

2.    Shape  of  ear 

3.    Length  of  ear 

4.    Circumfererence  of  ear 

5.    Tips  of  ear 

6.    Butts  of  ear 

7.  Kernel — uniformity  and  shape.  . 

8.  Color  of  grain  and  cob 

9.  Space  between  rows 

10.    Space  between  kernels  at  cob . .  . 

12.  Trueness  to  type 

13.  Proportion  of  corn  to  cob 

; 

Total                 

100 

j 

.        1                  1 

Your  fathers  and  mothers  should  be  invited  to  the 
festival  in  order  that  they  may  see  the  corn  which  is 
exhibited  and  may  know  something  about  the  work 
you  are  doing  while  you  are  at  school.  Perhaps  during 
the  study  period  for  English  your  teacher  will  allow 
you  to  write  invitations  to  them. 


CORN  JUDGING  85 

A  Score  Card  for  Utility  Corn 

General  Appearance 45% 

Indentation 5 

Ears  with  a  distinctly  rough  indentation  are  frequently  imperfectly 
matured  owing  to  the  presence  of  disease.  Very  rough  indentation  is 
objectionable  and  will  be  discriminated  against. 

Kernel  Composition 5 

Starchy  seed  ears  produce  many  diseased  plants  which  give  unsatis- 
factory yields. 

Shank  Attachments lO 

Many  ears  which  have  pink,  slightly  pink,  brown,  or  shredded  shank 
attachments  were  produced  on  diseased  stalks.  Frecjuently  such  ears 
may  have  an  otherwise  good  appearance  but  whenever  any  of  the  above 
symptoms  are  found,  the  ear  should  be  discarded.  (Note:  All  ears 
must  have  the  shank  attachments  intact  just  as  the  ear  was  broken 
from  the  shank.  Any  effort  to  trim  out  or  alter  the  shank  appearance 
will  eliminate  the  sample  from  competition.  This  does  not  apply  to 
ears  which  were  stored  on  hangers.) 

Tips  of  Ears 5 

The  tips  of  the  ears  should  be  bright  and  free  from  "weathering"  or 
discoloration  of  any  kind. 

Luster  or  Polish lO 

Ears  having  a  bright,  rather  oily  appearance  have  proved  themselves 
superior  as  seed  ears.  This  appearance  indicates  a  normal,  healthy 
development  and  complete  maturity  and  is  associated  with  greater 
vigor.  Such  ears  possess  higher  yielding  qualities  than  ears  which  are 
rather  dull,  dead  or  dry  looking  and  which  have  no  luster. 

Kernel  Characteristics 10 

Kernels  from  normally  matured  healthy  ears  are  nearly  always  thick, 
plump,  bright,  and  clean,  and  possess  well-developed  germs.  Such 
kernels  usually  have  distinctly  horny  endosperm.  A  moldy  or  dis- 
colored condition  of  the  kernels  near  the  point  of  attachment  to  the  cob 
indicates  disease. 

Germination  Record 35% 

Vitality  and  Vigor 20 

The  seedlings  in  the  germination  test  should  show  thick,  sturdy  sprouts 
and  good  root  development.  Tall,  slender,  weak  seedlings  and  those 
having  short  slender  feeder  roots  are  not  desirable. 

Freedom  from  Disease  Symptoms 15 

Type  and  Uniformity 20% 

All  ears  in  a  sample  should  be  uniform.  The  chief  points  considered 
here  are  shape  and  size  of  ear  and  uniformity  of  kernel.  These  vary 
with  the  variety  and  section  of  the  state  where  the  corn  was  grown. 


86  FARM   PROJECTS 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Ten  ears  of  corn  weigh  seven  pounds;  the  shelled  corn 
from  same  weighs  six  pounds.  Find  per  cent  of  corn  and  per 
cent  of  cob. 

2.  Yellow  Dent  corn  should  contain  88%  of  corn  and  I2%  of 
cob.  Find  the  standards  for  other  varieties  of  corn.  The  legal 
standard  for  corn  in  the  corn  belt  is  56  lb.  per  bushel  for  shelled 
corn  and  70  lb.  per  bushel  for  ear  corn.  According  to  this  stand- 
ard, what  is  the  per  cent  of  corn  and  of  cob.?  What  are  the  legal 
standards  of  weight  in  your  state."* 

3.  A  farmer  has  40  acres  of  corn  which  yields  36  bushels 
per  acre.  How  much  will  he  receive  for  his  crop  if  he  sells  it  in 
the  ear  at  60  cents  per  bushel.?  If  he  sells  it  as  shelled  corn,  as- 
suming that  the  corn  shells  out  86%  of  corn.?  Will  it  pay  him 
to  shell  if  the  shelling  costs  i  y^  cents  per  bushel .? 

4.  Find  the  capacity  in  bushels  of  a  corn  crib  twenty  feet  long, 
eight  feet  wide,  and  eight  feet  high. 

5.  Find  the  dimensions  of  a  crib  large  enough  to  contain  the 
corn  from  the  farm  mentioned  in  problem  3. 

6.  What  varieties  of  corn  are  grown  in  the  community.? 

7.  What  variety  yields  best.? 

8.  Why  should  the  shape  of  ear  be  considered  in  judging  corn  .? 

9.  Write  a  description  of  the  best  ten-ear  sample  of  corn  brought 
to  the  schoolhouse. 

10.    In  what  way  will  this  exercise  help  you  in  your  corn  produc- 
tion.?    Discuss  fully. 


XIII 
TESTING  SEED  CORN 

Home  Work 

The  Box  Method. — Construct  from  boards  one-half 
inch  thick,  a  box  20  inches  long  and  20  inches  wide. 
This  size  is  a  convenient  one  and  allows  ample  space  to 
test  one  hundred  ears  at  one  time. 

Fill  the  boxes  with  sawdust  or  clean  sand,  almost 
level  with  the  top  of  the  box,  thoroughly  moistening 
the  material  with  water.  Mark  off  the  surface  into  two- 
inch  squares  by  making  little  furrows  with  a  stick  or 
lead  pencil.  Begin  at  one  end  of  the  box  and  make  the 
first  furrow  or  mark  two  inches  from  the  end,  and  the 
second  one  two  inches  from  the  first.  Follow  the  same 
method  in  making  the  furrows  which  mark  the  surface 
lengthwise.  It  is  very  important  to  mark  off  the  sur- 
face with  straight  furrows  in  order  to  keep  the  kernels 
of  corn  in  order  later.  The  furrows  can  best  be  made 
straight  by  laying  a  yardstick  across  the  top  of  the  box 
as  a  guide. 

The  ears  to  be  tested  should  be  arranged  in  a  definite 
order  and  kept  in  the  same  order  until  the  test  is 
finished.  Place  one  hundred  ears  in  a  rack,  or  in  rows 
on  the  floor  or  on  a  table.     If  the  ears  are  kept  in  the 

87 


88  FARM   PROJECTS 

same  order  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  number  them, 
but  as  a  check  it  will  be  best  to  number  the  ears  the 
first  time  by  attaching  a  cardboard  tag  to  the  butt  end 
of  the  cob  with  a  pin  or  small  nail. 

Planting  the  Kernels. — Remove  six  kernels  from  each 
ear,  two  from  a  point  about  two  inches  from  the  tip,  two 


Fig.  20.   A  sawdust  corn  tester 

from  a  point  about  two  inches  from  the  butt,  and  two 
from  the  central  portion  of  the  ear.  Begin  with  ear 
number  one,  and  as  soon  as  the  kernels  are  removed, 
place  them  in  the  upper  left-hand  square  of  the  seed  box. 
Remove  six  kernels  from  ear  number  two  and  place 
them  in  the  square  to  the  right  of  the  first.  Continue 
in  this  way,  beginning  at  the  left  of  each  row  of  squares. 
Mark  the  square  containing  the  kernels  from  ear  num- 
ber one  by  placing  a  nail  or  stick  in  it.     Thus  when  the 


TESTING  SEED  CORN  89 

box  is  filled  it  contains  kernels  from  one  hundred  ears 
and  each  square  represents  an  ear.  Cover  all  the  ker- 
nels with  sand  or  with  a  cloth.  It  may  be  that  the 
marks  in  the  sand  will  disappear,  but  when  the  kernels 


Courtesy  of  Ginn  6*  Co. 

Fig.  21.    Pl.^cing  kernels  of  corn  in  .\  testing  box 

germinate  it  will  be  easy  to  distinguish  the  separate 
groups  of  kernels. 

Keep  the  box  in  some  place,  such  as  the  kitchen, 
where  the  temperature  is  warm  most  of  the  time.  The 
boxes  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  very  cold  or  the 
germination  may  be  checked. 

Checking  Results. — After  five  days  count  the  num- 
ber of  kernels  that  have  sprouted.     If  a  kernel  seem> 


90  FARM   PROJECTS 

to  be  weak,  do  not  count  it  as  a  good  one.  What  per- 
centage of  the  six  hundred  kernels  in  one  box  germi- 
nates ?  If  one  of  the  six  kernels  in  a  square  fails  to  grow, 
it  is  an  indication  that  other  kernels  on  the  ear  from 
which  it  was  taken  are  dead,  also,  and  that  ear  should 
be  discarded  as  being  unfit  for  seed.  What  per  cent 
of  the  ears  do  you  find  good  for  seed  1  How  much  time 
is  required  to  test  one  hundred  ears  of  corn .?  How  soon 
do  the  first  sprouts  appear  .f"  Which  bursts  forth  from 
the  kernel  first,  the  root  or  the  stem.?  If  ten  per  cent 
of  the  seed  planted  fails  to  grow,  how  many  hills  per 
acre  will  be  missing  on  your  farm.?  Test  some  of  the 
kernels  taken  from  the  tips  and  butts  of  the  ears  and 
determine  whether  they  grow  as  well  as  the  more  shapely 
kernels  from  the  central  portions.  The  germ  lies  on 
one  side  of  the  kernel  and  this  side  always  faces  in  the 
same  way.  Does  it  face  the  tip  of  the  ear  or  the  butt 
of  the  ear?  Count  the  number  of  rows  on  ten  ears  of 
corn  and  find  whether  there  is  an  odd  number  of  rows 
on  any  ear. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Seed  Should  Be  Tested. — The  farmer  who  wishes  to 
set  out  an  orchard  is  careful  to  choose  only  those  trees 
which  are  strong  and  healthy.  It  is  not  so  easy  to 
judge  the  vitality  of  seed  corn  by  examining  it;  still  the 
results  which  the  farmer  would  get  from  poor  seed  are 
as  truly  unsatisfactory  as  those  he  would  get  if  he  set 
out  a  dead  or  diseased  tree  in  the  orchard.     The  only 


TESTING  SEED  CORN  91 

way  to  know  whether  the  seed  will  grow  is  to  test 
each  individual  ear  to  determine  not  only  whether  the 
germs  are  alive  or  dead,  but  whether  they  are  strong 
enough  to  make  a  vigorous  growth.  If  a  few  kernels 
on  the  ear  of  corn  show  these  good  qualities,  one 
may  be  reasonably  sure  that  the  other  kernels  will 
also  grow. 

Causes  of  Poor  Seed. — Many  different  factors  may 
cause  the  little  kernels  of  corn  to  fail  to  produce  satis- 
factory corn  plants.  Cold,  wet  weather  weakens  the 
germ  or  baby  corn  plant,  sometimes  causing  the  kernel 
to  rot  when  corn  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  field  too 
late  in  the  season.  Disease  may  attack  the  kernels  in 
wet  weather  causing  the  germ  to  die  or  weaken.  If  the 
seed  is  kept  in  a  moist  room  at  warm  temperature,  the 
germs  will  start  to  grow  and  then  die  later  on.  Some- 
times sprouts  may  be  seen  on  some  kernels  at  husking 
time.  If  a  few  kernels  on  the  ear  are  beginning  to 
sprout,  the  ear  should  be  discarded  because  it  is  likely 
that  other  kernels  have  begun  growth.  Late  maturity 
is  perhaps  the  most  common  cause  of  poor  seed.  In 
the  northern  part  of  the  corn  area  of  the  United  States, 
early  frosts  frequently  do  much  damage  to  the  corn, 
reducing  the  feeding  value  of  the  kernel  as  well  as  the 
vitality  or  life  of  the  germ. 

Testing. — The  seed  may  be  tested  at  odd  times  dur- 
ing the  winter  months  when  there  is  plenty  of  free 
time  on  the  farm.  One  method  has  been  described  in 
the   directions   for   home   work,    but    there   are   other 


92 


FARM   PROJECTS 


methods  which  may  be  more  convenient  for  some  per- 
sons. If  a  warm  temperature  can  be  provided,  the 
corn  may  be  tested  by  placing  the  kernels  between 
pieces  of  blotting  paper  which  are  kept  moist.  This 
rnethod  requires  more  attention  than  the  others  be- 


FiG.  22.  High  school  boys  testing  seed  corn.  A  convenient  form  of 

SEED  CORN   RACK 

cause  the  blotting  paper  dries  out  very  rapidly  unless 
it  is  covered  with  a  wet  cloth  or  placed  between  dinner 
plates. 

Another  device  commonly  used  is  the  "rag  doll.'* 
Heavy  outing  flannel  cloth  is  cut  into  pieces  about 
twenty  inches  wide  and  twenty-four  inches  long;  then 
marked  off^  in  two-inch  squares,  and  kernels  placed  in 
these  squares.  The  sides  of  the  cloth  are  turned  in 
over  the  corn  and  rolled  tightly  from  one  end,  thus 


TESTING  SEED  CORN  93 

making  a  roll  similar  to  a  rag  doll.  The  "doll"  should 
then  be  soaked  in  warm  water  for  at  least  ten  hours  and 
placed  in  a  warm  place  to  allow  germination  to  go  on. 


Courtesy  of  Ginn  6*  Co. 

Fig.  23.   Showing  difference  in  germinating  power  of  seed 

The  "doll"  retains  or  holds  the  heat  given  off  by  the 
growing  seed  and  low  temperatures  do  not  affect  the  test 
unless  the  temperature  should  drop  to  the  freezing  point. 
Shelling  Seed  Com. — After  the  corn  has  been  tested 
and  the  bad  ears  discarded,  it  should  be  shelled,  sacked, 


94  FARM   PROJECTS 

and  placed  out  of  the  reach  of  rats  and  mice.  The 
kernels  from  the  tips  and  butts  are  usually  ill  shaped 
and  unfit  for  seed,  not  only  because  they  are  not  likely 
to  produce  good  strong  plants,  but  because  they  will 
not  pass  through  the  openings  in  the  edge  drop  planter. 
The  tips  and  butts  should  be  shelled  off  by  hand  and 
then  the  ears  may  be  run  through  a  hand  sheller.  Many 
farmers  prefer  to  shell  the  corn  by  hand,  thus  making 
sure  that  no  irregular  kernels  find  their  way  into  the 
seed  sack. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  If  you  found  ears  that  would  not  germinate  what  reason 
would  you  give  for  this  weakness?  Can  you  tell  the  exact  cause 
of  the  weakness.? 

2.  Make  a  "rag  doll"  tester  in  the  school,  fill  it  with  kernels  of 
corn,  and  note  the  growth  from  day  to  day.  Make  drawings  in 
your  notebooks  showing  seedlings  five  days  after  the  seed  has  been 
placed  in  the  "doll."  Observe  the  root  hairs  on  the  young  roots. 
What  is  the  purpose  of  these  hairs.'' 

3.  How  many  hills  of  corn  are  there  in  an  acre  if  it  is  checked 
forty-two  inches  each  way.? 

4.  If  a  normal  yield  in  your  locality  is  forty  bushels  per  acre, 
how  many  bushels  will  be  lost  on  your  farm  if  ten  per  cent  of  the 
kernels  fail  to  grow?  How  many  bushels  would  be  lost  on  the 
total  corn  area  of  the  farms  represented  in  the  class?  How  much 
money  loss  would  this  be  at  the  current  price  of  corn  ?  How  much 
time  would  have  been  required  to  test  the  corn  for  all  the  farms? 


XIV 
PLANT  DISEASES 

Home  Work 

Each  boy  will  play  .the  part  of  a  doctor  this  week; 
and,  if  he  can  enlist  the  help  of  his  father  in  this  exer- 
cise, much  good  will  result.  The  suggested  exercise 
should  become  a  farm  practice.  It  is  too  much  to  ask 
a  boy  to  do  all  the  work,  so  it  will  be  necessary  to  take 
the  father  into  partnership. 

Two  exercises  may  be  performed : 

1.  Treating  oats  for  smut. 

2.  Treating  seed  potatoes  for  scab. 
Directions. — Purchase  two  quarts  of  formaldehyde 

at  the  drug  store.  The  seed  oats  should  be  piled  in  a 
heap  on  a  clean  floor  of  the  granary  or  barn.  Mix  one 
pound  of  formaldehyde  (40%  solution)  in  40  gallons  of 
water  and  wet  the  oats  thoroughly  with  this  solution. 
One  or  two  persons  should  turn  the  oats  with  a  shovel 
while  another  sprinkles  the  solution  from  a  sprinkling 
can.  It  will  require  about  one  gallon  of  solution  for  a 
bushel  of  oats.  When  the  oats  are  wet,  cover  the  heap 
with  a  horse  blanket  or  other  cover.  This  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  penetrating  fumes  in  the  oats.  Allow  to 
stand  a  few  hours,  in  order  that  the  evaporating  formal- 

95 


96  FARM   PROJECTS 

dehyde  may  get  through  all  the  grain.  The  oats  may 
be  kept  covered  over  night.  Spread  the  seed  and  allow 
to  dry  before  placing  in  the  seeder.  Oats  should  not  be 
put  back  into  the  same  bin  after  they  have  been  treated 
as  they  may  become  infected  again.  They  may  be 
placed  in  clean  sacks  or  placed  in  a  wagon  bed  to  be 
taken  to  the  field. 

The  same  solution  may  be  used  to  treat  seed  potatoes 
for  scab.  Place  the  potatoes  in  a  sack  and  put  them  in 
a  tub  of  the  solution  for  two  or  three  hours.  Then 
allow  them  to  dry  before  planting.  Instead  of  formal- 
dehyde one  pint  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  30  gallons  of 
water,  may  be  used. 

If  each  boy  will  carry  out  these  two  exercises,  hundreds 
of  dollars  may  be  saved  in  the  two  crops.  The  exercises 
are  not  difficult.  The  reason  they  are  not  practiced  more 
widely  is  the  fact  that  farmers  just  do  not  "get  started." 

Describe  the  scab  which  is  found  on  potatoes.  Have 
you  seen  heads  of  oats  affected  with  smut .?  If  so,  what 
effect  did  the  smut  have?  How  does  blight  affect 
pear  trees.?  Can  you  name  other  plant  diseases  and 
tell  what  effect  they  have.? 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Damage  by  Disease. — Plants  are  living  things  just  as 
animals  are,  and  are  subject  to  disease  and  destruction 
in  the  same  way  that  animals  are.  Much  grain  is  lost 
each  year  by  disease,  the  estimated  annual  loss  in  the 


PLANT  DISEASES 


97 


United  States  due  to  plant  disease  being  more  than  a 
billion  dollars.  A  disease  which  "broke  out"  in  wheat 
fields  in  a  few  counties 
near  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, in  1919  de- 
stroyed more  than  a 
million  dollars  worth 
of  wheat. 

Fungus  Disease. — A 
type  of  plant  disease 
commonly  found 
among  economic 
crops  is  the  fungus. 
Oats  smut  is  a  typical 
fungus  and  may  be 
described  as  an  illus- 
tration. The  smut 
may  be  said  to  be  a 
plant  growing  upon  a 
plant.  It  is  true  that 
the  plants  we  call 
smut  are  so  small  that 
they  can  scarcely  be 


Fig.  24.    Germinating  power  of  seed  corn — 
Mlrphvsboro,  Illinois,  High  School. 


seen  with  the  naked 

eye  except  in  bunches. 

Nevertheless,  the  tiny 

forms  of  plants  have  a  minute  root  system  and  a  slender 

stem.     On  the  thread-like  stem  grows  a  little  black  ball 

which  bears  thousands  of  microscopic  seeds  or  spores  as 


98  FARM   PROJECTS 

they  are  called.  Can  you  imagine  a  grain  of  oats 
covered  with  tiny  plants  all  stealing  the  sap  and  food 
from  the  grain.  It  does  not  take  long  for  the  smut  to 
devour  or  destroy  completely  the  grain  of  oats.  Stalks 
of  oats  infected  with  smut  often  do  not  contain  a  single 
good  grain;  the  smut  has  destroyed  the  grain  just  as 
mold  softens  and  destroys  a  piece  of  bread.  The  roots 
of  the  tiny  smut  plants  fasten  themselves  in  the  kernel 
of  oats  just  as  the  roots  of  the  tree  grow  in  the  soil. 

How  Fungus  Spreads. — Most  diseases  of  plants  are 
"catching."  These  tiny  growths  spread  from  stalk  to 
stalk  and  even  from  field  to  field  in  much  the  same 
way  that  dandelions  and  milk  weeds  spread.  The  tiny 
spores  are  easily  blown  by  the  wind  from  place  to  place 
and  wherever  they  lodge  they  become  so  numerous 
that  they  can  soon  destroy  a  field  of  oats.  The  author 
has  counted  stalks  of  oats  infected  with  smut  and  found 
more  than  50%  of  the  stalks  in  a  given  area  without 
any  good  grains  of  oats. 

The  Treatment. — The  treatment  advised  in  the  di- 
rections for  home  work  is  the  same  as  disinfecting  a 
house  after  sickness.  The  formaldehyde  gas  kills  the 
tiny  spores  so  that  they  will  no  longer  grow  and  produce 
more  smut.  If  the  field  is  not  already  infected  with  the 
disease,  the  crop  is  not  likely  to  be  damaged.  The  spores 
may  "live  over"  in  the  soil  and  because  of  this  fact  crop 
rotation  should  be  practiced.  This  is  advised  particu- 
larly in  growing  potatoes  where  scab  has  been  found,  as 
the  scab  may  live  over  for  more  than  one  year  in  the  soil. 


PLANT  DISEASES  99 

Other  Kinds  of  Diseases. — Besides  the  fungus  dis- 
eases, there  are  some  others  which  are  more  nearly  hke 
the  diseases  to  which  people  are  subject.  Some  are 
caused  by  bacteria  or  *'germs"  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  pear  blight  being  an  example  of  such  a  disease. 
Sometimes  plants  just  seem  to  be  "run  down"  and  in 
such  cases  we  say  they  have  a  constitutional  disease. 
Preventives. — One  important  preventive  is  to  sow 
seed  from  healthy  plants.  Some  varieties  of  plants  have 
been  developed  which  resist  disease  more  than  others. 
A  tomato  has  been  developed  which  seems  to  resist  one 
of  the  common  tomato  diseases.  Some  varieties  of 
wheat  resist  rust  and  smut  more  than  other  varieties. 

If  crops  are  changed  from  year  to  year,  the  disease  is 
not  likely  to  stay  in  the  soil.  People  hesitate  to  move 
into  houses  where  tubercular  persons  have  lived  because 
the  germs  of  this  disease  are  likely  to  be  there.  Just  so, 
people  should  not  plant  potatoes  in  a  field  where  scab  has 
been  found  because  the  spores  are  still  in  the  soil. 
Other  diseases  are: 

Stinking  and  loose  smut  of  wheat. 

Rust  and  scab  of  wheat. 

Potato  scab. 

Leaf  rust  and  stem  rust  of  oats. 

Pear  blight. 

Apple  blotch. 

Corn  smut. 

Ear  rots  of  corn. 

Apple  scab. 


loo  FARM  PROJECTS 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  is  a  plant  disease? 

2.  Describe  a  fungus  growth  or  disease. 

3.  Name  ten  diseases  of  plants. 

4.  Give  the  method  of  controlling  smut  in  oats. 

5.  How  does  potato  scab  differ  from  smut? 

6.  Write  the  "prescription"  for  curing  these  two  diseases. 

7.  To  what  extent  do  plant  diseases  destroy  crops  each  year? 

8.  What  is  formaldehyde?     How  does  it  affect  the  diseases 
mentioned  ? 

9.  How  may  fungus  diseases  be  carried   from  one  plant  to 
another? 

10.  In  one  county,  the  county  agricultural  agent  kept  records  as 
to  the  oats  which  were  treated  and  those  which  were  not  treated. 
The  oats  which  were  treated  for  smut  yielded  six  bushels  more  per 
acre  than  those  untreated.  The  record  was  kept  on  5,000  acres. 
If  all  seed  planted  on  the  5,000  acres  had  been  treated,  what  would 
have  been  the  gain  due  to  treatment?  At  50  cents  per  bushel 
what  would  the  farmers  have  gained  for  their  labor  in  treating  the 
oats  for  smut? 

11.  Can  you  give  examples  from  your  community  showing  the 
value  of  treating  seed  for  disease? 


XV 
PRUNING 

Home  Work 

Old  and  New  Canes. — Select  a  currant  bush  and  a 
gooseberry  bush  in  your  home  garden.  Count  the  num- 
ber of  canes  or  cane  stems  growing  from  the  root  crown. 
How  many  grew  during  the  last  season.?  Name  all  the 
earmarks  by  which  you  can  tell  the  old  canes  from  the 
young  ones.  Count  the  buds  on  some  canes  of  the 
last  season's  growth  and  compare  them  with  the  buds 
on  one  of  the  oldest  canes  in  number  and  size.  In  prun- 
ing, mark  each  kind  of  cane  so  that  you  will  be 
able  to  compare  the  fruit  yields  during  the  coming 
season.  Compare  some  of  the  old  canes  found  in  the 
raspberry  or  blackberry  bushes  with  the  new  ones 
which  are  to  produce  fruit  the  coming  season  and  list 
the  differences  which  you  can  see  between  the  two  kinds 
of  canes. 

The  Grapevine. — Make  a  study  of  a  grapevine.  On 
what  parts  of  the  vines  do  you  find  buds  most  abun- 
dant.? Can  you  tell  the  newest  shoots  or  canes  from 
the  oldest  ones.?  Measure  the  longest  grapevines  you 
can  find.  Count  the  different  years'  growth,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  to  determine  the  age  of  the  vines.     Each 


I02 


FARM   PROJECTS 


year's  growth  is  marked  by  a  curved  joint  where  a 
"shoot"  has  grown  from  another  cane. 

Apple  Trees. — Observe  apple  trees  to  find  the  differ- 
ent shapes  of  tops.     They  range  from  the  very  round 


Fig.  25.   A  young  apple  tree 

BEFORE   PRUNING. 


Fig.  26.   Same  tree  after 

PRUNING. 


to  the  upright  or  peaked  form.  How  far  from  the 
ground  are  the  base  limbs  of  the  highest  heads.?  Of 
the  lowest .?  Does  the  trunk  of  the  tree  from  the  ground 
to  the  first  limbs  ever  grow  longer  or  do  the  first  limbs 
always  remain  the  same  distance  from   the  ground.'' 


PRUNING  103 

Can  you  suggest  reasons  for  your  answer?  What  does 
your  answer  suggest  about  pruning  a  young  tree? 

Select  a  small  tree  and  ask  your  father  or  someone 
on  the  farm  to  help  you  prune  it.  Have  your  knife, 
shears,  and  saw  sharp.  Use  a  step-ladder  to  reach  the 
limbs,  as  it  is  not  desirable  to  climb  on  the  limbs.  Cut 
out  all  dead  or  diseased  branches.  Make  all  cuts  close 
to  the  main  trunk  or  branches  and  make  the  cuts 
smooth.  If  the  limbs  are  large,  cover  the  wound  with 
paint  to  prevent  decay  and  insect  damage.  Thin  the 
top  by  cutting  out  crooked  branches  and  branches  that 
have  grown  across  each  other.  Try  to  make  the  top 
of  the  tree  look  shapely  by  your  work  and  cut  out 
enough  of  the  branches  to  allow  the  sunlight  to  reach  the 
inner  parts  of  the  top.  In  cutting  the  ends  of  branches 
leave  a  bud  just  below  the  cut  to  start  a  new  branch. 

Note  the  illustration  showing  how  to  prune  a  young 
tree.  If  there  are  no  young  trees  on  the  farm,  prune 
an  old  tree.  This  will  require  more  work  but  it  will  be 
worth  the  effort,  as  better  quality  of  fruit  will  probably 
result. 

Shrubs. — The  class  should  prune  the  shrubs  in  the 
school  yard.  Ornamental  shrubs  may  be  pruned  any 
time  after  flowering  time,  the  usual  time  being  early 
spring.  The  main  object  is  to  make  them  more  shapely 
and  to  stimulate  growth.  Shrubs  which  are  not  pruned 
soon  become  rough  and  uneven  in  growth,  making  a 
less  pleasing  appearance  than  well  pruned  shrubs.  The 
older  branches  should  be  cut  out,  keeping  the  younger 


I04 


FARM   PROJECTS 


growths  from  year  to  year.  The  size  should  be  con- 
trolled to  suit  the  surroundings.  For  instance,  barberry 
about  the  porch  or  entrance  should  be  kept  below  three 

feet  in  height. 
Each  boy  should 
prune  the  shrubs 
such  as  lilacs  and 
honeysuckle  grow- 
ing in  the  home 
yards.  Perhaps 
more  work  is  out- 
lined than  one  boy 
can  do,  but  each 
should  choose  the 
piece  of  home 
work  which  needs 
most  to  be  done. 


Facts  to  Be 
Studied 

What  Is  Prun- 
ing ?  —  Pruning 
means  trimming 
or  cutting  away  some  parts  of  a  plant.  Nature  prunes 
the  trees  of  the  forest  when  she  causes  the  wind  and 
storm  to  break  off  limbs  that  are  dead.  Every  boy  has 
seen  trees  in  the  orchard  or  street  that  have  had  the 
knife  and  saw  used  on  them  until  nothing  is  left  but  the 


Fig.  27.  A  twenty-five  year  old  lilac  bush 
which  has  never  been  pruned  except  by 
Nature.    Note  the  mass  of  struggling  young 

GROWTH. 


PRUNING  105 

trunks  and  stubs  of  the  main  branches.  Such  whole- 
sale cutting  is  usually  not  intelligent  pruning,  but  a 
cutting  back  without  a  purposeful  aim.  There  are 
those  who  say  that  pruning  is  unnecessary  because 
Nature  intends  all  growth  for  some  good;  but  we  must 
remember  that  the  apple  tree,  if  allowed  to  grow  in 
the  wild  and  natural  surroundings  of  the  forest,  does 
not  produce  the  large,  juicy  fruit  which  is  so  relished 
by  man,  but  instead,  produces  a  small  sour  product. 
The  purpose  of  the  fruit  tree  in  bearing  fruit  is  to  re- 
produce the  kind  by  scattering  seed  and  not  to  produce 
food  for  man,  and  it  is  only  when  man  cultivates  the 
tree  and  directs  its  growth  that  good  fruit  can  be 
produced.  It  is  true  that  some  delicious  fruit,  such 
as  the  blueberry,  dewberry,  and  other  similar  fruits, 
may  be  found  growing  wild,  but  these  are  exceptions 
and  they  too  can  be  improved  by  pruning  and  culti- 
vation. 

Why  Prune? — The  trees  grow  more  branches  from 
year  to  year  and  soon  the  inside  branches  are  so  shut 
in  that  the  sunlight  cannot  reach  them.  When  some 
of  the  branches  are  cut  away,  the  others  will  get  more 
food  and  sunlight  and  will  thrive  better.  The  branches 
thus  cared  for  will  produce  better  fruit  than  they  would 
have  produced  if  they  had  been  crowded  and  shut  away 
from  the  sunlight.  Sometimes  branches  become  dis- 
eased or  are  injured  by  a  storm.  If  allowed  to  remain 
on  the  tree,  such  branches  will  spread  disease  and 
finally  cause  the  death  of  the  whole  tree.     It  is  neces- 


io6  FARM  PROJECTS 

sary  that  they  be  cut  off.  Sometimes  a  man's  hand  is 
crushed  in  some  piece  of  machinery  or  it  becomes 
infected  with  blood  poisoning,  and  the  surgeon  finds 
he  cannot  stop  the  poison  or  save  the  hand  by  medi- 
cine, so  he  cuts  off  the  hand  in  order  to  save  the  hfe  of 
the  man.  It  is  not  a  difficult  task  for  boys  to  find  the 
diseased  portions  of  shrubs  and  trees  about  the  home, 
and  many  trees  and  shrubs  may  be  saved  by  cutting 
out  diseased  parts. 

Another  object  of  pruning  is  to  keep  the  shrubs  and 
trees  within  certain  limits  of  size  and  shape.  Pruning 
for  this  purpose  is  practiced  on  the  flowering  shrubs 
and  sometimes  on  fruit  trees  and  shade  trees. 

The  fruit  grower  prunes  regularly  to  increase  the 
quality  of  fruit  borne  on  his  trees.  There  are  several 
ways  in  which  pruning  aids  fruit  production.  The 
tree  is  made  more  healthy  and  vigorous  by  cutting  off 
the  diseased  and  broken  branches;  more  sunlight  can 
reach  the  inner  branches  if  the  head  has  been  thinned 
by  pruning;  not  so  much  disease  will  be  found  in  clean, 
open  fruit  trees  as  is  found  in  the  ones  which  are  thickly 
branched;  and  the  fruit  will  grow  larger  if  not  crowded. 
We  know  that  the  roots  take  up  water  and  food  from 
the  soil  and  carry  the  materials  up  to  the  leaves  where 
the  food  is  made  over  and  used  in  the  growth  of  the 
tree.  If  some  of  the  branches  are  cut  off,  there  will  be 
more  food  for  the  ones  remaining  and  they  will  develop 
a  more  vigorous  growth,  thus  producing  a  better  quality 
of  fruit. 


PRUNING 


107 


How  to  Make  the  Cut  in  Pruning. — Much  depends 
upon  the  way  a  limb  is  cut.  If  it  is  chopped  off  or 
broken  off,  a  ragged  surface  will  be  left  and  disease 
will  affect  it  later.  A  "clean  cut"  on  the  finger  is  not 
so  dangerous  as  a 
ragged  and  torn 
wound  made  by 
tearing  the  flesh, 
because  there  is 
more  danger  of  in- 
fection in  the  latter 
case.  The  same 
is  true  of  tree 
wounds.  The  cut 
should  not  only 
leave  a  smooth  sur- 
face, but  should  be 
made  close  to  the 
main  stem  or  branch  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
Long  stubs  are  liable  to  become  harbors  for  insects  and 
disease. 

Pruning  Young  Trees  and  Shrubs. — Directions  have 
already  been  given  for  pruning  trees  as  they  are  set. 
Young  shrubs  and  trees  should  be  pruned  regularly 
during  their  early  life,  the  pruning  being  particularly 
important  at  this  time  because  on  it  depends  the  shape 
of  the  shrub  or  tree.  Young  fruit  trees  should  be 
pruned  so  as  to  form  a  well-balanced  head,  beginning 
at  the  proper  height  from  the  ground. 


Fig.  28.    Methods  of  cltting  off  branches: 
A.  Correct  way;   B.  Incorrect  way 


io8  FARM   PROJECTS 

Shrubs,  such  as  the  barberry,  lilac,  and  bridal  wreath, 
are  more  beautiful  and  develop  better  if  they  are  pruned 
and  not  allowed  to  grow  as  in  the  wild  state.  A  more 
vigorous  growth  will  be  obtained  if  the  young  shrubs 
and  trees  are  pruned  severely.  One  of  the  authors 
planted  a  yard  with  shrubs.  When  he  began  to  cut 
them  back  rather  severely  the  owner  objected,  saying 
that  she  was  sure  the  shrubs  would  die  if  cut  so  severely 
and  that  she  could  not  bear  to  see  such  "merciless 
surgery. "  He  saw  the  garden  each  year  for  several  years 
and  the  shrubs  that  had  been  properly  cut  back  made 
an  excellent  initial  growth  and  none  died.  But  not  so 
with  the  unpruned  specimens;  they  became  ragged  and 
the  growth  was  much  less  vigorous.  Leaf  growth  is 
more  luxurious  on  pruned  trees  and  shrubs. 

Pruning  Bush  Fruits. — Blackberries  are  produced  upon 
canes  or  branches  that  die  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is 
borne,  a  new  set  growing  each  year  to  bear  fruit  the 
following  year.  Raspberries  and  dewberries  are  similar 
in  their  habits.  There  are  three  main  things  to  do  in 
pruning  such  bush  fruits  as  blackberries.  First,  the 
old  or  dead  canes  should  be  removed  when  they  are 
through  bearing  fruit.  This  may  be  done  by  cutting 
off  the  dead  canes  at  the  ground  or  the  crown  of  the 
roots,  using  ordinary  pruning  shears  or  a  pruning 
knife.  The  second  process  is  to  pinch  back  the  grow- 
ing shoot  or  cane  which  is  to  produce  the  fruit  frequently 
during  the  growing  season,  pinching  off  the  tips  with 
the  thumb  and  finger,  or  clipping  them  with  a  shears. 


PRUNING 


109 


Courtesy  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  29.     Gooseberry  cane  before  pruning, 
showing  over-abundance  of  growth 


When  the  end  is 

thus  cut  off,  the 

cane  stops  its  up- 
ward growth  and 

begins  to  throw 

out     branches 

along  the  side  of 

the  cane,  which 

branches  some- 
times grow  so  long 

that  they  too  need 

pinching  back.    If 

careful    attention 

is  given  to  the  berry  patch  during  the  growing  season, 

the  quaHty  of  fruit 
will  be  much  im- 
proved and  the 
work  of  harvest- 
ing will  be  greatly 
lessened.  Third, 
some  of  the  grow- 
ing shoots  should 
be  removed  from 
the  plant  during 
the  growing  sea- 
son by  cutting 
them  off   at   the 

root  crown.    This  process  is  important  as  berry  bushes 

usually  send  up  too  many  canes  to  produce  a  good 


Courtesy  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  30.    Same  cane  after  pruning 


no  FARM   PROJECTS 

quality  of  fruit.  From  a  half  dozen  to  a  dozen  sturdy- 
canes  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  each  hill.  Most 
of  this  pruning  can  be  done  easily  by  boys;  in  fact, 
boys  can  do  the  work  to  better  advantage  than  can 
men  because  they  are  more  nimble  and  can  stoop  to 
cut  the  canes  with  less  effort  than  can  grown  men. 
One  of  the  authors,  when  a  boy,  found  the  pinching 
back  of  an  acre  of  blackberries  a  most  interesting  pro- 
cess. To  be  able  to  check  longitudinal  growth  of  the 
cane  and  to  cause  it  to  become  a  real  bush  by  putting 
out  the  lateral  branches  is  a  most  important  as  well  as 
an  interesting  part  of  growing  the  fruits;  and  it  can  be 
done  merely  by  pinching  off  the  growing  tip.  When  a 
person  picks  from  forty  to  sixty  quarts  of  blackberries 
or  raspberries  in  a  day  he  will  appreciate  the  importance 
of  having  low,  well-formed,  well-branched  canes  which 
stand  apart  from  others  in  the  same  hill.  The  canes 
should  be  about  two  feet  high  and  thinned  so  that  one 
will  not  interfere  with  the  other.  Raspberry  vines  or 
canes  are  inclined  to  grow  beyond  control  if  not  pinched 
back  or  severely  pruned.  The  long  canes  bend  over 
and  lie  on  the  ground,  causing  the  fruit  to  spoil,  while 
if  properly  pruned,  they  remain  upright  as  do  black- 
berries. Sometimes  a  wire  trellis  or  stake  is  used  as  a 
support  for  raspberries. 

Gooseberries  and  Currants. — Perhaps  a  large  major- 
ity of  the  "bushes"  which  are  to  be  found  in  farmers' 
gardens  are  allowed  to  grow  from  year  to  year  with 
very  little  attention,  bearing  fruit  of  such  quantity  and 


PRUNING  III 

quality  as  they  can  under  natural  conditions.  How- 
ever, a  little  attention  to  such  plants  as  currants  and 
gooseberries  will  be  worth  while.  The  woody  stems 
or  canes  more  than  three  years  old  should  be  cut  out 
and  the  new  growth  should  be  kept  thinned.  Some 
new  canes  should  be  encouraged  each  year  in  order  to 
keep  a  supply  of  young  growth  at  all  times.  Any  dis- 
eased wood  or  stems  infested  with  insects  should  be 
burned.  In  fact,  a  good  rule  to  follow  in  all  pruning 
work  is  to  burn  all  parts  cut  off,  as  they  may  become 
infected  with  disease  while  they  lie  on  the  ground,  even 
though  healthy  when  cut  off. 

Grapes. — Since  grape  pruning  is  somewhat  different 
from  the  pruning  of  the  bush  fruits  a  few  suggestions 
for  their  care  will  be  given.  There  is  danger  of  allow- 
ing vines  to  produce  too  much  vegetation;  that  is, 
leaf  and  stem  growth  which  will  reduce  the  amount  of 
fruit.  Farmers  are  likely  to  be  more  interested  in 
having  the  grapevines  cover  an  arbor  for  purposes  of 
shade  than  they  are  in  obtaining  fruit  production. 
The  grapevines  should  not  be  expected  to  give  us  a 
good  shade  or  arbor  covering  and  at  the  same  time 
produce  the  best  quality  of  fruit.  They  require  severe 
pruning.  Many  systems  of  pruning  and  training  grapes 
are  in  use.  These  systems  may  be  found  illustrated  in 
books  on  fruit  growing.  The  main  points  or  facts  to  be 
learned  are  similar  in  all  systems.  Grapes  are  produced 
on  shoots  which  grow  from  buds  on  last  year's  growth. 
A  cane  which  grows  this  year  will  develop  buds  in  the 


112 


FARM  PROJECTS 


Fig.  31.   One  method  of  pruning  and  training 


GRAPEVINES 


summer  and  these  buds  put  out  shoots  next  year, 
grapes  being  borne  on  the  shoots.  One  of  these  shoots, 
the  one  nearest  the  last  year's  cane,  should  not  be  al- 

^ lowed  to  bear  fruit. 

J^i     I      1    r~T         (     /   r     r    n     it  is   kept  for   the 

purpose  of  produc- 
ing shoots  the  fol- 
lowing year.  All 
fruiting  shoots  ex- 
cept the  ones  saved 
to  produce  next 
year's  shoots  should 
be  cut  off  at  the  end 
of  the  fruiting  season.  The  shoot  or  cane  which  remains 
should  then  be  cut  back  to  the  number  of  buds  desired 
and  trained  to  a  wire  trellis.  A  good  vine  may  support 
a  dozen  or  more  canes,  each  bearing  as  many  as  fifteen 
to  twenty  buds.  The  illustration  shows  one  method  of 
cutting  back  the  grape. 

Grapes  should  be  pruned  during  the  dormant 
period,  that  is,  the  period  when  the  vines  are  resting. 
Most  pruning  is  done  in  winter  when  the  sap  is  not 
flowing. 

Summary. — We  have  said  that  pruning  with  the 
shears  or  knife  is  just  a  way  of  helping  Nature  to  do  her 
work  in  thinning  the  branches  on  a  tree  or  shrub  and 
in  taking  out  the  broken  and  diseased  branches.  Prun- 
ing gives  ventilation  and  sunlight  to  the  inner  part  of 
the   tree  head.     It   stimulates  fruit   production,   and 


PRUNING  113 

wood  production  as  well,  depending  upon  the  time  when 
the  work  is  done  and  the  method  used.  In  general  the 
dormant,  or  sleeping  period,  of  the  plant's  life  is  the 
best  time  to  prune,  although  for  some  purposes  summer 
pruning  may  be  practiced.  Methods  of  pruning  should 
be  adapted  to  the  particular  kinds  of  trees  or  shrubs 
which  are  to  be  pruned.  The  grape  requires  one 
method  or  type,  the  blackberry  another.  To  train  the 
plant  to  a  certain  form  or  size  it  is  necessary  to  start  as 
soon  as  the  plant  is  set.  Boys  can  be  of  great  service 
on  the  farm  by  cooperating  with  their  fathers  in  making 
every  tree  and  shrub  in  the  fruit  garden  do  the  best  it 
can  in  the  production  of  fruit  for  the  table.  It  will  be 
fun  to  clean  out  the  old  gooseberry  bush  and  make  it 
over  into  a  new  and  thrifty  bush  which  will  produce 
better  berries  than  it  ever  produced  before. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  kinds  of  fruit  trees  and  bush  fruits  which  should  be 
pruned  have  you  on  your  farm? 

2.  Describe  the  methods  used  in  pruning  the  plants  on  your 
farm. 

3.  How  could  you  improve  upon  these  methods? 

4.  Bring  a  branch  of  an  apple  tree  to  school  and  show  the  class 
how  to  make  the  cut  in  removing  branches. 

5.  Why  should  young  trees  or  shrubs  be  pruned  soon  after  they 
are  set  ? 

6.  Find  out  all  the  different  methods  of  pruning  used  by  farm- 
ers in  your  community. 

7.  How  can  you  tell  wood  one  year  old  from  older  wood  ? 


114  FARM  PROJECTS 

8.  How    does    pruning    aid    in    making    the    quality    of  fruit 
better  ? 

9.  Tell  how  you  pruned  a  single  tree,  shrub,  or  bush. 

10.  How  does  the  method  of  pruning  the  grapevine  differ  from 
other  types  of  pruning.  Bring  a  part  of  a  grapevine  to  class  for 
illustrative  pruning. 


XVI 
THE   HOTBED 

Home  Work 

How  many  farmers  in  your  community  use  hotbeds? 
This  question  may  be  answered  if  a  cooperative  survey 
is  carried  on  by  the  class.  Very  Httle  time  will  be 
needed  for  this  part  of  the  study,  the  purpose  being  to 
determine  what  is  the  general  practice  in  the  community. 


Fig.  32.   Cross-section  of  manure  pit  hotbed 

The  main  v/ork  to  be  done  at  home  is  to  make  a  small 
hotbed,  or  to  help  to  construct  a  large  hotbed  if  needed 
on  the  farm.  Specific  directions  will  be  found  in  the 
next  part  of  this  chapter.  The  hotbed  should  be  made 
as  cheaply  as  possible,  keeping  in  mind,  of  course,  that 

"S 


ii6  FARM   PROJECTS 

it  should  be  made  sufficiently  large  and  durable  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  family  garden  this  year. 

It  will  be  a  good  plan  for  the  class  to  build  a  small 
hotbed  at  the  schoolhouse  following  the  directions  given 
by  the  teacher.  Flowers  for  the  school  may  be  started, 
such  as  asters,  salvia,  snapdragons,  and  ornamental 
grass.  If  it  is  not  desirable  to  plant  flower  beds  on  the 
school  grounds,  these  plants  may  be  reset  in  paper  pots 
or  strawberry  boxes  and  taken  home  by  the  pupils. 

The  first  hotbed  to  be  made  at  home  may  be  made  to 
fit  an  old  window  sash,  which  may  be  found  on  the  farm. 

Seed  should  be  planted  in  the  bed  soon  after  it 
becomes  warm. 

Write  a  story  for  your  language  lesson  telling  how 
you  made  your  hotbed. 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Purpose  of  Hotbed. — A  hotbed  is  a  bed  of  soil  which 
is  artificially  heated.  It  is  used  as  a  place  to  start 
plants  for  the  garden.  In  all  central  and  northern  re- 
gions there  are  many  plants  which  require  a  longer 
season  to  reach  maturity  than  the  climate  allows. 
Such  plants  should  be  started  early  and  transplanted 
as  soon  as  the  weather  permits. 

Kinds  of  Hotbeds. — There  are  several  ways  of  heat- 
ing hotbeds,  steam  pipes  sometimes  being  extended 
through  the  bed  of  soil  where  large  hotbeds  are  needed 
and  steam  is  available.  The  most  common  type  of  hotbed 


THE   HOTBED  117 

is  one  heated  by  horse  manure,  which  gives  off  heat  when 
it  ferments.  There  are  two  types  of  this  kind  of  hotbed : 
one,  which  is  built  entirely  on  top  of  the  ground,  called  a 
surface  hotbed,  and  the  pit  hotbed  in  which  the  manure 
is  placed  in  a  pit  dug  in  the  ground.  The  latter  is  the 
best  kind  for  us  to  build,  especially  in  the  colder  climates. 
The  pit,  which  should  usually  be  about  a  foot  deep,  is 
filled  with  manure  and  the  frame  is  set  a  little  above  the 
level  of  the  ground  in  order  to  secure  good  drainage. 

Where  to  Place  the  Hotbed. — Every  boy  has  at  some 
time  "visited"  with  the  "gang"  on  the  south  side  of 
the  barn  or  shed  and  knows  how  much  warmer  it  is  on 
this  side  where  the  sun's  heat  is  reflected  than  it  is  out 
in  the  open  or  on  the  north  side.  Since  the  purpose  of 
the  hotbed  is  to  supply  heat  to  the  young  seedlings,  the 
bed  should  be  placed  on  the  south  side  of  a  building,  a 
wall,  or  a  high  board  fence.  The  place  should  be  well 
drained  and  slope  to  the  south.  If  natural  drainage 
cannot  be  secured,  a  trench  should  be  dug  to  allow  the 
excess  water  to  run  away. 

The  Pit. — The  pit  should  be  made  at  least  a  foot  deep 
and  should  be  made  a  little  larger  than  the  hotbed  frame 
in  order  to  secure  heat  at  the  edge  of  the  soil  bed. 
Sometimes  the  ground  is  frozen  at  the  time  when  the 
hotbed  should  be  made,  and  it  is  difficult  to  dig  the  pit. 
The  freezing  may  be  prevented  by  covering  the  place 
with  horse  manure  to  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet,  some 
time  in  January,  or  at  least  two  weeks  before  you  wish 
to  make  the  hotbed. 


ii8  FARM   PROJECTS 

The  Frame. — The  frame  should  be  made  of  twelve- 
inch  boards,  boards  two  inches  thick  being  best  for 
this  purpose.  The  frame  should  be  set  in  the  pit  so 
that  it  has  a  pitch  to  the  south  of  about  an  inch  to  the 
foot,  and  should  be  supported  by  a  post  or  stake  at 
each  corner,  otherwise  it  may  settle  out  of  shape  when 
placed  on  the  manure. 

The  Sash. — The  regular  hotbed  sash  is  made  of  small 
panes  of  glass,  and  is  usually  about  3  feet  by  6  feet  in 
size;   but  any  sized  sash  may  be  used. 

The  glass  should  be  overlapped  so  as  to  drain  the 
water  off  to  the  south.  However,  an  ordinary  window 
sash  containing  from  four  to  eight  panes  can  be  used  if 
not  convenient  to  get  a  regular  hotbed  sash,  if  the  par- 
titions are  notched  to  allow  the  water  to  drain  off.  It 
is  best  to  hinge  the  sash  at  the  north  end  of  the  frame. 

Making  the  Bed. — Fill  the  pit  with  fresh,  unfer- 
mented  horse  manure  which  should  be  well  tramped  in 
the  pit.  It  is  better  to  have  the  manure  piled  up  a 
week  or  two  before  placing  it  in  the  pit,  but  care  should 
be  taken  that  it  does  not  burn  during  this  time.  Ma- 
nure should  be  banked  around  the  outside  of  the  frame, 
to  aid  in  retaining  the  heat. 

When  the  manure  has  been  placed  in  the  pit,  about 
6  inches  of  fine,  loose,  mellow  soil  should  be  placed  in 
the  frame  on  the  manure.  It  is  difficult  to  get  this  soil 
when  the  ground  is  frozen  and  for  this  reason  it  is  well 
to  use  soil  which  has  been  covered  with  manure  for  a 
week  or  two.     When  the  soil  has  been  placed  in  the 


THE  HOTBED  119 

frame,  the  hotbed  is  finished.  It  should  not  be  allowed 
to  become  too  dry  during  the  next  two  weeks,  while  it 
is  heating. 

When  to  Plant. — It  is  a  mistake  to  plant  seeds  in  the 
hotbed  as  soon  as  it  is  finished  as  the  bed  is  likely  to 
become  too  hot  during  the  first  week  or  two,  but 
seeds  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  temperature  be- 
comes regulated  from  70°  to  80°  F.  The  bed  should  be 
ventilated,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  too  cold 
for  seed  germination.  Plenty  of  fresh  air  and  moisture 
should  be  supplied,  as  the  young  seedlings  are  beginning 
to  grow.  It  is  well  to  make  daily  observations  of  the 
temperature  as  the  hotbed  is  warming  up. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  hotbed?     The  cold  frame.? 

2.  Tell  how  to  construct  a  pit  hotbed. 

3.  Record  the  highest  temperature  in  your  hotbed  during  the 
first  week. 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  pit  and  surface  types  of 
hotbeds .? 

5.  Name  five  advantages  of  the  hotbed. 

6.  Find  the  cost  of  a  hotbed  3  feet  by  6  feet  at  local  prices. 

I  sash  3'  X  6'  Labor — 8  hours 

I  pair  hinges  Lumber: 

I  load  manure  3  pieces  i'  x  2"  x  6' 

4  stakes  2"  x  4"  x  2' 

7.  What  plants  must  be  started  in  the  hotbed  in  your  com- 
munity.? 

8.  What  other  plants  might  be  started  in  the  hotbed  with  profit.? 


XVII 
TRANSPLANTING   PLANTS 

Home  Work 

The  principles  and  processes  of  transplanting  can 
be  well  illustrated  in  the  transplanting  of  tomato 
plants.  The  home  work  in  connection  with  this  study- 
should  cover  several  weeks'  time.  Our  object  is 
to  grow  tomato  plants  until  they  are  ready  to  be  set 
in  the  garden,  studying  the  reasons  and  principles 
underlying  the  processes  used  in  connection  with  trans- 
planting. 

Choose  the  variety  or  kind  which  you  will  plant  in 
the  home  garden  and  get  the  seed  in  January.  Such 
early  varieties  as  Bonnie  Best  and  such  later  varieties 
as  Stone,  Ponderosa,  and  Grand  Pacific  give  good 
results. 

The  seeds  may  be  planted  in  a  small  box  of  fine,  loose 
soil  in  the  house  or  they  may  be  planted  in  a  hotbed. 
If  planted  in  a  house  box,  plenty  of  moisture  should  be 
supplied,  and  the  box  should  be  drained.  Place  the 
box  in  a  warm  light  window.  When  the  young  seed- 
lings are  from  two  to  three  inches  high,  they  should  be 
transplanted  to  two-inch  flower  pots.  If  flower  pots 
are  not  available,  small  tin  cans  will  answer  the  purpose 


TRANSPLANTING  PLANTS  121 

if  holes  are  punched  in  the  cans  to  provide  drainage.  It 
is  best  not  to  transplant  to  larger  pots  at  first.  The 
tiny  plants  should  be  handled  carefully  in  order  not  to 
break  the  roots.  The  stem  is  easily  broken.  Make  a 
hole  in  the  soil  with  a  stick  or  pencil  and  drop  the  plant 
into  it,  packing  the  soil  around  it. 

When  the  roots  have  completely  filled  the  two-inch 
pots,  the  plants  should  be  transplanted  to  larger  pots, 
strawberry  boxes  being  very  good  substitutes  for  flower 
pots.  By  tapping  the  small  two-inch  pots  on  a  hard 
surface,  the  plant  will  come  out  without  breaking  up 
the  mass  of  roots,  and  if  transplanted  to  larger  pots 
in  this  condition,  the  plant  continues  its  growth,  not 
being  retarded  by  the  shock  which  would  ordinarily 
occur  in  transplanting.  The  plants  should  not  be  kept 
too  warm  or  they  will  become  spindling.  The  best 
place  for  the  larger  pots  or  strawberry  boxes  is  in  a  cold 
frame  on  the  south  side  of  a  building  where  they  may 
be  protected  from  freezing  weather.  If  there  is  likely 
to  be  much  cold  weather,  the  pots  may  be  kept  in  the 
hotbed  under  glass. 

When  the  plants  are  almost  ready  to  bloom,  they  may 
be  transferred  to  the  open  garden,  being  transplanted 
as  soon  as  there  is  no  longer  any  danger  from  frosts. 
To  transplant  into  the  garden  soil,  make  holes  large 
enough  to  contain  the  entire  root  system  and  soil  as  it 
comes  from  the  pot  and  set  the  plant  a  few  inches  deeper 
than  it  was  in  the  pot.  The  plant  should  not  wilt  if 
properly  set. 


122  FARM   PROJECTS 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Necessity  of  Transplanting. — Transplanting  is  neces- 
sary in  parts  of  the  country  where  the  growing  season  is 
too  short  to  grow  and  mature  the  garden  products 
needed.  If  the  season  is  shorter  than  the  length  of 
time  required  for  maturity,  then  the  plants  must  be 
grown  in  hotbeds  for  a  short  time,  before  they  are 
placed  in  the  garden.  In  northern  and  central  regions, 
such  plants  as  cabbage,  head  lettuce,  cauliflower,  celery, 
tomatoes,  eggplant,  sweet  potatoes,  and  peppers  must 
be  started  under  artificial  conditions  because  the  frost 
catches  them  before  they  mature  If  the  seed  Is  sown  in 
the  garden  after  the  soil  becomes  warm.  Time  and  ex- 
pense are  required  to  grow  plants  and  transplant  them, 
but  machines  built  for  transplanting  plants  on  a  large 
scale  have  lessened  both  labor  and  cost.  The  hotbed  has 
been  described  in  detail  in  Chapter  XVI,  but  it  may 
be  noted  here  that  the  hotbed  should  be  made  early 
enough  to  allow  plenty  of  time  for  plants  to  develop,  the 
particular  time  varying  with  the  locality.  Celery,  egg- 
plant, and  tomatoes  require  more  time  for  development 
in  the  hotbed  than  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  lettuce. 

The  methods  of  successive  transplanting  from  one 
place  to  another  have  been  described  in  the  directions 
for  home  work.  Most  plants  do  not  require  the  suc- 
cessive transfers  that  are  recommended  for  tomatoes. 

Watering  Plants. — We  have  already  learned  that 
plants  take  up  water  through  the  roots,  and  that  the 


TRANSPLANTING  PLANTS  123 

water  enters  the  roots  through  the  root  hairs.  When 
transplanting  plants  from  the  hotbed  to  open  fields,  it 
is  often  impossible  to  keep  from  injuring  the  root  hairs, 
so  the  plant  must  grow  new  roots  before  it  is  able  to  at- 
tach itself  to  soil  particles  and  to  take  in  moisture  in  the 
regular  way.  The  plant,  however,  adjusts  itself  very 
rapidly  and  within  a  few  days'  time  the  new  root  hairs 
may  be  seen  growing  if  the  plant  is  again  pulled  from  the 
soil.  In  the  meantime,  the  plant  needs  plenty  of  water  to 
keep  it  from  wilting,  so  when  plants  are  being  set  by  hand 
in  the  garden,  water  should  be  poured  into  the  hole  before 
the  plant  is  set.  It  is  a  mistake  to  pour  water  on  top  of 
the  soil  about  the  plant  for  it  makes  the  soil  pack  and 
evaporation  goes  on  more  rapidly.  Sometimes,  if  the  sun 
is  very  hot,  it  is  advisable  to  cover  the  plants  with  paper 
or  large  leaves,  such  as  may  be  obtained  from  rhubarb,  in 
order  to  check  excessive  evaporation  through  the  leaves. 
Potted  plants  do  not  need  such  precautionary  care  be- 
cause the  roots  are  not  disturbed  when  the  plant  is  reset. 
What  to  Grow  for  the  Flower  Bed. — Many  flower- 
ing plants  can  be  grown  most  successfully  if  started  in 
the  hotbed.  Every  one  admires  the  beautiful  asters 
which  bloom  in  late  summer  and  fall.  These  plants 
should  be  started  in  February  or  March  and  trans- 
planted to  little  pots  or  to  flats  (shallow  boxes  filled 
with  soil),  but  should  not  be  transplanted  to  the  open 
bed  until  warm  weather.  Salvia  is  another  plant  which 
grows  through  a  long  season.  The  blood  red  appear- 
ance which  a  bed  of  salvia  takes  on  in  the  late  summer 


124  FARM   PROJECTS 

is  enough  reward  to  repay  any  boy  or  girl  for  growing 
and  caring  for  the  plants  early  in  the  season.  The  seeds 
are  planted  at  the  same  time  that  aster  seeds  are  planted 
and  the  plants  are  transplanted  in  the  same  way. 

Snapdragons  do  best  if  transplanted.  They  bloom 
in  the  summer  and  continue  to  bloom  until  late  autumn 
if  the  plants  are  sturdy.  Many  other  plants,  including 
such  house  plants  as  the  geranium,  must  be  trans- 
planted to  give  the  best  results.  The  latter  is  started, 
however,  not  from  seed,  but  from  cuttings  placed  in 
small  pots. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  is  meant  by  transplanting? 

2.  Why  is  transplanting  necessary?  Is  it  necessary  in  all 
localities  ?     Is  it  necessary  for  all  plants  in  your  locality? 

3.  What  are  root  hairs?  Why  are  roo't  hairs  mentioned  in 
connection  with  transplanting? 

4.  State  the  general  principles  which  you  have  learned  in  con- 
nection with  transplanting.     Give  reasons  for  each  step. 

5.  Describe  in  detail  just  what  you  would  do  in  watering  a 
plant.     Give  reasons  for  these  directions. 

6.  How  do  plants  take  in  water? 

7.  How  is  water  given  oft? 

8.  When  should  the  various  plants  be  started  in  the  house  or 
hotbed?  Make  up  a  planting  table  for  your  locality,  showing 
when  the  various  plants  may  be  planted  in  the  garden. 

9.  Suppose  you  were  growing  head  lettuce  by  starting  the 
plants  in  the  hotbed.  Outline  the  things  to  be  done  in  order  to 
make  the  transplanting  successful. 

10.    How  does  the  procedure  followed  with  lettuce  diff^er  from 
that  followed  with  tomatoes? 


XVIII 
THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

Home  Work 

Each  member  of  the  class  should  arrange  to  have  a 
small  garden  at  home  for  which  he  is  entirely  respon- 
sible. Other  home  work  may  be  done  as  suggested; 
but  the  small  garden  described  in  the  following  plan 
should  be  grown  and  accounts  should  be  kept  through 
the  summer.  Much  pleasure  may  be  found  in  planning, 
planting,  and  caring  for  such  a  garden  which  should  be 
small  so  as  to  insure  the  best  of  care  and  good  results. 
The  dates  suggested  in  the  directions  for  planting  are 
for  the  central  section  latitude  about  40°  and  the  dates 
should  be  changed  to  meet  climatic  conditions  in  your 
community. 

Arrange  an  account  book  to  show  the  following 
data: 


EGETABLE 


Date 
Planted 


First 

Plants 

Appeared 


First 

Plants 

Ready  for 

Use 


Amount 
Harvested 


Total 
Value 


I2S 


126  FARM   PROJECTS 

The  Plan 
lo  feet  X  JO  feet 

1.  Parsnips 

2.  Parsnips 

3.  Chard 

4.  Lettuce 

5.  Radishes 

6.  Peas 

7     Peas 

8.  Onions 

9.  Onions 

10.  Beets 

1 1 .  Carrots , 

12.  Head  Lettuce 

13.  Head  Lettuce 

14.  Cabbage , 

15 

16.   Cabbage 

17 

18.   Beans 

19 

20.    Beans 

21 

22.    Beans 

23 

24.   Tomatoes 

25 

26.   Tomatoes 

27 

28.   Tomatoes 

29 

30 


The  garden  should  be  at  least  as  large  as  the  one 
shown  in  the  plan.  The  numbered  rows  are  twelve 
inches  apart,  but  rows  15,  17,  19,  21,  23,  25,  27,  29,  and 
30  should  be  left  vacant  and  the  space  given  to  the  next 
row.     The   rows   of  cabbages,    beans,    and    tomatoes 


THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN    127 

should  be  set  at  least  two  feet  apart.  The  beans  may 
be  drilled  in  the  rows.  The  cabbages  should  be  set 
eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row  and  the  tomatoes 
should  be  set  so  that  each  plant  will  have  about  ten 
square  feet. 

Planting  Directions  for  Home  Garden 

The  Parsnip. — The  parsnip  is  a  root  crop;  that  is,  the 
root  is  the  portion  which  is  used  for  food.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  in  the  garden  about  April  15th  and  as 
soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough,  they  should  be 
thinned  out  to  about  two  or  three  inches  in  the  row. 
They  will  then  grow  through  the  summer  and  finish 
their  growth  in  late  fall.  Parsnips  are  thought  to  be 
better  for  table  purposes  after  they  have  had  a  light 
freeze.  They  may  be  left  in  the  soil  until  spring  or  may 
be  taken  up  and  laid  away  in  the  cellar  or  buried  in  a 
pit  in  the  garden  until  they  are  wanted  for  the  table. 

Chard. — Chard  belongs  to  the  beet  family  and  should 
be  planted  at  the  same  time  that  parsnips  are.  It  pro- 
duces a  luxuriant  growth  early  and  is  ready  for  cooking 
as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  large  enough  to  use.  The 
stalk  may  be  used  in  the  same  way  as  asparagus  and 
the  leaves  as  greens.  It  will  make  a  new  growth  as 
soon  as  the  leaves  are  cut,  thus  furnishing  greens 
throughout  the  season.  The  seed  should  be  drilled 
in  the  row  and  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough 
they  should  be  thinned  out  to  three  or  four  inches  in 
the  row. 


128 


FARM   PROJECTS 


THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN    129 

Leaf  Lettuce. — Leaf  lettuce  should  be  sown  as  early 
as  the  soil  is  ready  to  be  worked  in  the  spring.  The 
seed  should  be  sown  rather  thickly  in  the  row  and  thin- 
ning may  be  done  when  the  plants  are  large  enough  to 
use  by  pulling  whole  plants  from  the  soil.  Lettuce  is 
a  cool  season  crop;  that  is,  it  grows  best  in  cool  weather, 
becoming  bitter  in  hot  weather. 

Radishes. — Radishes  belong  to  the  cool  season  crops 
as  does  lettuce  and  should  be  sown  at  the  same  time 
lettuce  is  sown.  Later  sowings  should  be  made  at  inter- 
vals of  ten  days  to  furnish  fresh  roots  for  a  longer  time, 
as  they  get  pithy  soon  after  maturing  and  all  the  plants 
of  one  sowing  usually  mature  at  about  the  same  time. 

Peas. — Peas  must  have  a  cool  season  in  which  to 
develop  so  they  should  be  drilled  in  rows  as  soon  as  the 
soil  is  ready  to  be  worked.  They  require  very  little 
care  other  than  weeding  and  keeping  the  ground  loose 
to  save  the  moisture. 

Onions. — The  onion  sets  should  be  planted  about  two 
inches  apart  in  the  row  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
ground  becomes  warm.  Lettuce,  radishes,  peas,  and 
onions  may  be  set  out  on  or  about  April  ist  in  the 
central  part  of  the  United  States. 

Beets  and  Carrots. — Beets  and  carrots,  like  parsnips, 
are  root  crops.  The  seed  may  be  drilled  in  rows  at  the 
same  time  that  the  parsnips  and  chard  are  planted. 
They  will  be  ready  for  use  in  the  early  part  of  the  sum- 
mer and  will  not  withstand  frost  as  will  the  parsnips. 
Beets  and  carrots  are  best  for  table  use  when  they  are 


I30  FARM   PROJECTS 

quite  young  and  tender  but  they  may  be  used  at  any 
time  during  their  period  of  growth. 

Head  Lettuce. — Head  lettuce  should  be  cared  for  in 
much  the  same  way  as  early  cabbage.  The  plants  should 
be  started  early  in  March  in  the  house  or  hotbed.  It 
is  better  to  grow  the  plants  in  the  hotbed  and  transplant 
them  to  the  cold  frame  so  as  to  harden  them  before  setting 
them  in  the  soil.  In  the  central  part  of  the  United  States, 
they  may  be  put  into  the  soil  as  early  as  April  loth.  The 
plants  should  be  set  about  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
They  must  be  grown  in  the  cool  season  and  should  be 
grown  quickly  if  they  are  to  make  large,  tender  heads. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage  should  be  started  in  boxes  and 
the  plants  may  be  set  in  the  garden  about  April  15th. 
By  that  time  they  should  be  large,  well-developed  plants. 
The  plants  that  have  grown  tall  but  have  not  developed 
a  good  root  system  may  not  withstand  the  shock  of 
transplanting.  When  transplanting  any  variety  of  plant 
from  hotbed  or  window  box  to  the  garden,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  have  a  good  strong  plant  and  well-prepared  soil. 
Water  should  be  put  into  the  hole  before  the  plant  is  set. 
There  is  little  value  and  sometimes  much  damage  to  the 
plant  when  water  is  poured  on  the  soil  around  the 
plant  after  transplanting.  The  plants  must  be  watered 
from  day  to  day  for  a  few  days  after  they  are  set  in  the 
garden,  but  the  soil  should  be  stirred  around  the  plant 
after  the  water  has  gone  into  the  soil. 

Beans. — Beans  belong  to  the  warm  season  crops  and 
should  be  drilled  in  rows  about  the  first  week  in  May. 


THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN    131 

The  young  plants  are  not  very  hardy  and  will  not  with- 
stand the  frosts  that  are  likely  to  come  as  late  as  the 
first  part  of  May.  The  soil  should  be  very  warm  and 
moist  in  order  to  insure  germination.  The  beans  should 
be  at  least  eight  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Tomatoes. — Tomatoes  must  be  transplanted.  They 
are  very  tender  and  must  not  be  put  into  the  soil  until 
all  danger  of  frost  is  past,  unless  they  can  be  protected. 
The  usual  time  for  setting  tomato  plants  in  the  central 
part  of  the  United  States  is  about  the  middle  of  May. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  early  in  February  if  early 
fruit  is  desired  but  may  be  sown  in  boxes  or  in  the  hot- 
bed as  late  as  the  first  of  April.  The  plants  should  be 
transplanted  first  to  small  paper  pots,  two  inches  in 
diameter,  and  when  the  roots  have  filled  the  small  pot 
the  plants  may  be  transplanted  to  four-inch  pots.  The 
plants  cared  for  in  this  way  will  be  ready  to  bloom  by 
the  time  they  are  set  in  the  garden.  The  lower 
branches  may  be  pruned  off  but  it  does  not  pay  in  the 
small  garden  to  prune  the  vines  very  heavily. 

Vegetables  Varieties  Amount  of  Seed 

FOR  THE  Garden  Suggested  (Approximate) 

Parsnips Hollow  Crown One  tenth  ounce 

Chard LucuUus One  tenth  ounce 

Lettuce Black  Seeded  Simpson One  fifth  ounce 

Radishes Icicle  and  French Two  ounces  (for 

Breakfast  several  plantings) 

Peas Notts  Excelsior One  fourth  pint 

Beets Blood  Turnip One  fifth  ounce 

Carrots Chantenay One  tenth  ounce 

Head  lettuce VVayahead,  May  King  or  Big  Boston 1  wenty  plants 

Cabbage Karly  Flat  Dutch Twelve    plants 

Beans Stringless  Green  Pot One  pint 

Tomatoes Ponderosa,  Earliana,  Bonnie  Best Fight  plants 

Onions White  Bottom One  quart  (depends  on  size) 


132  FARM   PROJECTS 

Draw  to  scale  a  plan  showing  your  home  garden  as 
it  was  planted  last  year.  Draw  the  improved  plan. 
Help  your  father  and  mother  in  carrying  out  the  new 
plan  for  the  garden  this  year. 

Note  to  Teacher. — A  contest  may  be  arranged  for  the  growing  of  home  gardens 
according  to  the  suggested  plan  and  perhaps  local  patrons  will  be  willing  to  offer 
prizes.  It  is  better  to  have  all  gardens  planted  according  to  one  plan,  even  though 
some  suggested  vegetables  may  be  new  or  unpopular  at  first.  Garden  shows  should 
be  arranged  for  the  exhibition  of  the  products. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Why  Have  a  Garden  ? — There  are  many  reasons  why 
every  farmer  should  have  a  garden.  More  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  growing  of  fresh  vegetables  for 
the  table.     Chief  among  the  reasons  are: 

1.  Vegetables  furnish  healthful  food. 

2.  Fresher  vegetables  may  be  obtained  from  the  home  garden 
than  from  the  grocery  store. 

3.  Vegetables  from  the  garden  help  to  reduce  the  high  cost  of 
living. 

4.  A  larger  variety  of  vegetable  food  may  be  secured. 

5.  A  continuous  supply  of  fresh  vegetables  may  be  had  through- 
out the  season. 

6.  The  garden  may  be  made  a  source  of  "extra  money"  on  the 
farm  by  specializing  on  a  few  vegetables  for  sale. 

The  Garden  Plan. — The  garden  should  be  planned 
as  carefully  as  any  other  part  of  the  farm  work.  A 
carefully  designed  plan  will: 

1.  Save  labor  at  planting  time. 

2.  Conserve  space. 

3.  Provide  for  necessary  cropping. 

4.  Save  labor  in  cultivation. 


THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN    133 

No  exact  plan  can  be  given  that  will  meet  the  needs  of 
all  farmers.  The  plan  will  depend  on  the  tastes  of  the 
family,  the  size  of  the  garden,  and  the  section  of  the 
country.  A  suggested  plan  may  be  found  in  Circular 
No.  154  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
and  in  most  books  on  gardening. 

Soil  for  Gardens. — The  soil  is  a  most  important  fac- 
tor in  growing  a  garden.  Since  the  value  of  many  of 
the  products  depends  upon  their  early  maturity,  the  soil 
should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  promote  early  growth. 
A  loose  sandy  soil  dries  out  early  in  the  spring  and  warms 
up  early.  The  garden  should  have  a  south  exposure  and 
good  drainage  is  a  necessary  factor  in  garden  soils. 

Gardens  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  and  covered 
with  a  light  covering  of  well-rotted  manure  as  fall  plow- 
ing conserves  moisture  and  causes  the  soil  to  dry  out 
earlier  in  the  spring.  The  soil  should  be  worked  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  possible  and  finely  pulverized.  If  the 
soil  is  sour,  a  dressing  of  slaked  lime  should  be  applied. 

The  large  farm  garden  should  be  planted  in  rows  far 
enough  apart  to  allow  cultivation  with  horse-drawn  cul- 
tivators, thus  saving  much  time.  Frequent  tillage  con- 
serves moisture  and  keeps  down  weeds.  The  hoe,  rake, 
and  hand  cultivator  should  be  used  to  supplement  the 
larger  cultivator  in  working  between  the  vegetables  in  the 
rows.  A  five-fingered  weeder  is  a  most  convenient  tool 
for  hand  cultivation  in  the  garden.  The  soil  should  be 
stirred  continually  during  the  season.  The  practice 
of  allowing  the  weeds  to  grow  up  as  soon  as  the  crops 


134  FARM   PROJECTS 

begin  to  mature  is  a  bad  one.  Continued  tillage  con- 
serves moisture  and  keeps  the  soil  in  good  physical 
condition  and  plant  food  is  more  available  when  the 
soil  is  in  good  condition. 

Harvesting  Garden  Crops. — Most  vegetables  are  good 
for  the  table  during  a  short  period  of  time  only. 
Peas,  radishes,  lettuce,  sweet  corn,  beans,  and  many 
other  vegetables  must  be  harvested  just  at  the  time 
when  they  reach  the  stage  of  maturity  when  they  are 
good  for  the  table  or  they  become  woody  or  tough  and 
are  of  little  value  for  table  use.  It  is  best  to  cut  all 
vegetables  for  the  table  early  in  the  morning  while  the 
stems  and  foliage  are  full  of  water,  making  them  crisp. 
Vegetables  lose  much  of  their  freshness  when  they  lie  on 
the  counter  in  the  grocery  store  for  any  length  of  time. 

All  garden  vegetables  that  are  to  be  kept  during  the 
winter  should  be  harvested  before  frost  except  parsnips, 
salsify,  and  horse  radish,  which  may  be  allowed  to  freeze. 

Storage. — Too  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
storage  of  vegetables  for  winter  use.  As  many  vege- 
tables can  be  stored,  the  cost  of  providing  the  table 
with  food  during  the  winter  can  be  materially  lowered 
by  proper  kind  of  storage.  Most  vegetables  which  are 
cooked  in  preparing  them  for  the  table  can  be  canned. 
The  list  includes  string  beans,  beets,  peas,  corn,  rhu- 
barb, greens,  pumpkins,  sweet  potatoes,  and  tomatoes. 

Potatoes  may  be  stored  in  cellars  or  in  outdoor  pits 
but  should  be  stored  where  there  is  some  moisture  and 
a  low  temperature.     Parsnips,  carrots,  and  beets  may 


THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN    135 

be  stored  in  cool  cellars,  but  should  be  covered  with 
sand  to  prevent  withering.  Cabbage  may  be  stored 
in  pits  or  in  cool  cellars.  The  outside  pit  should  be 
well  drained  and  ventilated.  The  vegetables  should 
be  covered  with  straw  or  other  dry  material  before  they 
are  covered  with  soil  and  a  trench  should  be  dug  around 
the  pit  in  order  to  secure  good  drainage. 

Onions  should  be  stored  in  dry  places  with  plenty  of 
ventilation  as  they  will  soon  begin  to  grow  if  stored  in 
damp  cellars.  Sweet  potatoes  require  a  warm,  dry 
atmosphere,  as  do  squash  and  pumpkins,  and  may  be 
stored  in  the  attic  near  the  chimney  if  the  attic  is  warm. 
The  storage  of  vegetables  should  be  as  much  a  part  of 
the  farmer's  program  as  the  planting  of  the  garden. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  List  all  the  vegetable  crops  grown  for  food  in  the  community. 

2.  What  vegetables  are  canned  in  your  home?  Which  ones 
are  stored  In  other  ways.? 

3.  Tell  how  an  outside  pit  has  been  made  on  your  farm.  Com- 
pare the  different  methods  described  in  class.      Which  is  best.? 

4.  What  difficulties  have  you  had  in  starting  your  garden  ? 

5.  Give  five  reasons  for  planning  your  garden. 

6.  What  plants  must  be  transplanted  from  the  hotbed.? 

7.  Suggest  methods  of  watering  a  small  garden. 

8.  Keep  a  record  of  current  prices  as  suggested  in  the  home 
work  and  determine  the  total  value  of  products  harvested  from 
your  garden. 

9.  Compare  the  amounts  of  products  harvested  from  the  dif- 
ferent gardens  and  suggest  reasons  for  these  differences. 

10.    What  insects  have  you  seen  at  work  in  the  garden .? 


XIX 
THE   FLOWER 

Home  Work 

Observe  the  visits  of  insects  to  the  blossoms  of  fruit 
trees  and  to  early  flowers  of  other  plants.  Watch  for 
the  first  appearance  of  flowers.  What  flowers  bloom 
first  in  the  spring  in  your  locality.?  What  different 
colors  have  you  seen  in  flowers.?  Can  you  suggest  a 
reason  why  the  flowers  are  highly  colored.? 

Tear  a  number  of  flowers  apart  and  study  the  parts  of 
the  flower.  Where  is  the  yellow  dust  called  pollen  found .? 
How  do  insects  carry  this  dust  from  flower  to  flower.? 

Tabulate  your  observations  according  to  the  follow- 
ing outline: 


Name 

OF 

Flower 


Date  of 

First 

Appearance 


Number 

OF 

Sepals 


Number 

OF 

Petals 


Color 


Number 

OF 

Stamens 


Number 

OF 

Pistils 


Tear  a  tulip  apart  and  draw  the  different  parts  in 
your  notebook. 

What  becomes  of  the  colored  petals  of  the  peach 
blossom  after  a  few  days .?  Does  your  answer  suggest 
a  reason  why  the  petals  are  colored.? 

What  kinds  of  insects  have  you  seen  visiting  flowers .? 

136 


THE   FLOWER 


137 


Anther 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

What  Is  a  Flower? — All  boys  and  girls  are  fond  of 
beautiful  flowers,  yet  none  perhaps  has  ever  asked  the 
question,  "What  is  a  flower?"  We  can  describe  it,  but 
it  is  not  so  easy  to  tell  just  what  it  is.  It  is  a  peculiar 
part  of  the  plant  and  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  stage 
of  the  fruit  of  the  plant.  By  fruit  we  do  not  mean 
apples  and  such  fruits  only,  but  the  ripened  seed  struc- 
tures of  all  plants  such  as  corn,  wheat,  and  nuts.  The 
flower  is  that  part  of  the  plant  which  bears  the  parts 
which  are  con- 
cerned in  seed  pro- 
duction. 

Parts  of  the 
Flower. — If  we  ex- 
amine the  flower 
from  the  outer- 
most parts  to  the 
innermost  we  find 
first  of  all  a  set 
of  leaves  usually 
green  in  color. 
These  outermost 
leaves  are  called 
sepals.  Next  there  is  a  crown  of  more  delicate  leaf-like 
structures,  usually  brilliantly  colored,  which  are  called 
petals.  Growing  just  inside  the  crown  of  colored  petals 
are   a  number  of  slender  stem-like  structures  called 


Fig.  34.    Flower  of  cherry,  showing  parts 


138  FARM   PROJECTS 

stamens,  which  look  like  slender  stems  bearing  a  seed 
on  the  end.  This  seed-like  growth  is  not  a  seed  but 
an  anther,  and  bears  the  dust-like  pollen  which  is  so 
familiar  to  all  who  have  observed  flowers.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  flower  grows  the  pistil  in  the  form  of  a  small 
tube.  It  is  in  the  base  of  this  pistil,  in  a  pocket  called 
the  ovary,  that  the  seeds  of  the  plant  begin  their  growth. 
Before  these  little  seeds  develop,  the  original  cells 
present  in  the  ovary  must  unite  with  pollen  grains  from 
the  stamens.  The  insects  help  to  carry  these  pollen 
grams  from  one  flower  to  another. 

Sometimes  a  flower  has  only  stamens  or  only  pistils. 
If  a  flower  has  no  stamens,  the  pollen  must  be  brought 
from  another  flower  either  by  the  wind  or  insects  before 
seed  can  develop.  The  corn  is  an  example  of  a  plant 
which  has  its- pistils  called  the  "silk"  in  one  place  and 
its  stamens  called  the  "tassel"  in  another  place.  The 
pollen  must  fall  from  the  tassel  to  the  silk  before  the 
grains  of  corn  can  be  formed.  A  grain  of  corn  is  the 
resulting  growth  when  a  pollen  grain  finds  its  way  down 
a  hollow  strand  of  corn-silk  and  there  unites  with  a  cell 
and  begins  to  grow. 

Nectar. — On  the  end  of  the  pistil  is  found  a  sweet 
sticky  fluid  called  nectar.  The  honey  bee  uses  this  nec- 
tar to  make  honey,  and  other  insects  use  it  for  food. 
The  honey  bee  is  also  serving  the  plants  in  a  peculiar 
way,  for  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  pollen,  it 
gathers  some  on  its  legs,  since  the  bee's  legs  are  covered 
with  hairs,  and  as  the  bee  flies  from  flower  to  flower, 


THE   FLOWER  139 

gathering  nectar,  the  pollen  is  distributed.  Thus  one 
bee  may  carry  the  pollen  of  a  single  flower  to  a  dozen  or 
more  other  flowers.  If  it  were  not  for  the  insects, 
many  flowers  would  not  receive  enough  pollen  to  en- 
able them  to  produce  seeds.  The  red  clover,  for  in- 
stance, must  be  pollinated  by  a  bumblebee  or  it  will 
not  produce  seed.  The  pollen  of  the  clover  is  enclosed 
in  a  bag-shaped  flower  and  is  not  distributed  except  by 
the  aid  of  the  bumblebee  as  he  seeks  his  nectar.  Other 
insects  seem  to  be  unable  to  enter  the  clover  flowers. 

Why  Fruit  and  Seed  Do  Not  Always  Develop. — Some- 
times cold  heavy  rains  come  just  when  the  pollen  is 
ready  to  be  distributed.  The  rains  beat  the  pollen 
off  and  reduce  the  amount  of  fruit.  Other  factors  such 
as  frost  may  injure  the  pollen  and  decrease  the  amount 
of  fruit.  Sometimes  the  freeze  comes  just  after  the 
fruit  begins  to  form  and  causes  the  young  fruit  to  drop 
off.     This  is  often  the  case  with  pears. 

The  flower  begins  to  form  within  the  bud  almost  a 
year  before  the  blossom  appears.  In  the  apple,  for 
instance,  the  buds  in  July  will  be  found  to  contain 
young  flowers  which  will  burst  forth  the  next  spring. 
Since  the  flowers  must  withstand  all  the  weather  con- 
ditions of  the  winter  months,  it  is  little  wonder  that 
many  of  them  are  killed  by  the  freezing  weather. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

I.  Name  the  first  ten  flowers  which  bloom  in  the  spring  in  your 
section. 


I40  FARM   PROJECTS 

2.  What  fruit  trees  bloom  first  in  the  spring?  Will  fruit 
trees  which  bloom  necessarily  bear  fruit?  Give  reasons  for  your 
answer. 

3.  How  much  clover  seed  was  produced  in  your  community 
last  year?  What  is  the  value  of  the  seed  at  current  prices?  The 
answer  is  the  economic  value  of  the  bumblebee  to  the  farmers  in 
the  community.     Where  have  you  found  bumblebees'  nests? 

4.  What  insects  other  than  the  bumblebee  have  you  seen  visit- 
ing the  blossoms  of  fruit  trees? 

5.  Write  a  composition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects: 

The  Bumblebee  and  Clover  Blossoms 

How  the  Flower  Produces  Seed 

The  Most  Beautiful  Flower  in  My  Garden 


XX 

TREES 

Home  Work 

Two  exercises  should  be  carried  out  at  home  in  con- 
nection with  this  study.  The  first  one  we  shall  call  an 
"Observation  Exercise";  the  second  one,  "Planting  a 
Tree." 

Observe  the  trees  on  your  way  to  school  and  make 
a  list  of  all  those  which  you  can  name.  Gather  leaves 
from  those  you  cannot  name  and  take  them  to  school 
to  get  help  from  some  other  member  of  the  class 
or  from  the  teacher.  Keep  an  eye  open  for  the  birds, 
taking  particular  notice  of  the  trees  or  shrubs  which 
seem  to  be  favorites  with  the  birds.  Decide  upon 
some  one  distinguishing  mark  which  will  help  you 
to  recognize  each  kind  of  tree.  Count  the  rings  on 
a  stump  where  a  tree  has  been  recently  cut  down. 
Each  ring  represents  a  year's  growth.  What  was 
the  age  of  the  tree.?  Watch  for  the  first  coloring 
of  leaves  in  the  fall.  How  many  colors  can  you 
find  on  a  single  tree.?  Find  answers  to  the  following 
questions: 

I.  How  many  different  kinds  of  trees  can  you  find  on  your  way 
to  school,  including  those  on  your  home  grounds? 

141 


142  FARM   PROJECTS 

2.  What  is  the  distinguishing  mark  by  which  you  can  recognize 
the  following  trees: — oak,  maple,  elm,  ash,  catalpa,  mulberry,  wild 
cherry,  sycamore,  willow,  tulip  tree? 

3.  From  what  trees  or  shrubs  can  you  make  whistles?  At 
what  time  of  year  can  you  make  them  most  easily?  Can  you  sug- 
gest a  reason  for  this? 

4.  Where  are  the  taller  trees  found,  in  the  woods  or  in  the  open 
pasture?     Can  you  tell  why  this  is  true? 

5.  What  will  happen  to  the  young  tree  after  replanting  if  the 
branches  are  not  pruned? 

6.  How  much  time  is  required  to  take  up  a  young  tree  in  the 
woods  and  reset  it  in  the  home  yard?  Can  you  suggest  reasons 
why  boys  and  girls  do  not  seek  to  improve  the  home  surroundings 
more  often  than  they  do? 

7.  What  is  your  favorite  poem  about  trees?  A  poem  should  be 
memorized. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  A  tree  remains  dormant  through  the  winter? 

Planting  a  Tree. — There  is  usually  a  spot  in  the 
farmyard  that  would  be  more  beautiful  and  might  be 
more  valuable  if  a  tree  were  planted  there.  Our  pur- 
pose in  planting  a  tree  or  a  number  of  trees  is  to  obtain 
shade  or  fruit,  or  perhaps  both.  If  a  fruit  tree  is 
desired,  the  teacher  should  aid  the  pupils  in  obtaining 
good  specimens  from  a  reliable  nursery  or  perhaps 
some  farmer  in  the  community  will  be  willing  to  fur- 
nish some  young  fruit  trees  for  this  purpose.  Select 
trees  of  a  desirable  variety.  If  an  elm  or  maple  or 
other  shade  tree  is  desired,  it  may  usually  be  obtained 
from  the  woods.  Go  into  the  woods  and  select  a  good 
specimen  which  is  not  larger  than  you  can  easily  carry, 
and  with  a  sharp  spade  dig  around  the  tree,  keeping  at 


TREES 


143 


Fig.  35.  A  splendid  monument 


Courtesy  of  American  Forestry. 


144  FARM   PROJECTS 

least  two  feet  away  from  its  base.  Take  up  as  many- 
roots  as  possible  and  be  careful  to  keep  the  roots  moist 
as  they  will  soon  die  if  allowed  to  become  dry.  Select 
a  spot  where  shade  is  needed.  The  tree  should  be 
placed  far  enough  away  from  the  house  or  barn  so  that 
it  will  not  have  to  be  cut  away  when  it  matures.  Prune 
the  roots  so  that  there  are  no  ragged  ends  left.  This 
will  cause  the  roots  to  fit  down  more  closely  when  the 
tree  is  set  in  the  hole  and  may  prevent  decay.  Dig  a 
hole  large  enough  to  set  the  entire  root  system  without 
crowding  the  roots,  and  make  sure  that  there  is  plenty 
of  good  fine  soil  with  which  to  pack  the  roots  firmly. 
Now  set  the  tree  in  place  and  pack  fine  soil  about  the 
roots.  The  tree  should  be  set  a  little  deeper  than  it  was 
in  the  woods. 

After  the  tree  is  set,  prune  the  top  severely,  leaving 
only  the  main  branches.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  tree 
will  not  be  able  to  draw  enough  moisture  through  its 
limited  root  system  and  will  die. 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Value  of  Trees. — Every  boy  and  girl  knows  the 
value  of  a  good  shade  tree,  for  it  not  only  provides  a 
resting  place  for  man  and  beast  away  from  the  hot 
summer  sun,  but  it  greatly  enhances  the  beauty  of  the 
home  surroundings.  Fruit  trees  furnish  both  shade 
and  fruit,  and  can  be  easily  grown,  yet  many  farmers 
buy  fruit  each  year  to  can  or  for  other  use.     In  most 


TREES  145^ 

instances  a  plentiful  supply  of  good  fruit  could  be  had 
by  planting  a  few  trees  about  the  premises. 

The  forest  furnishes  the  material  for  our  houses,  our 
wagons,  our  furniture,  and  for  many  other  necessities 
which  could  not  be  made  from  other  material.  Boys 
and  girls  should  help  to  increase  the  number  of  trees  in 
the  community.  No  greater  monument  can  be  built. 
Wouldn't  you  like  to  have  some  one  say  a  quarter  of  a 
century  hence  that  you  had  planted  the  beautiful  shade 
tree  on  the  school  grounds  or  in  the  home  yard.? 

When  to  Plant. — Trees  may  be  planted  in  the  spring 
or  in  the  fall;  but,  if  planted  in  the  spring,  they  should 
be  set  early  before  the  hot  weather  begins.  An  ad- 
vantage of  fall  setting  is  that  the  trees  become  set  in 
the  soil  and  are  ready  to  start  new  growth  early  in 
the  spring.  Usually  an  arbor  day  is  designated  by 
state  officials  and  the  school  should  give  this  day  to 
tree  planting.  The  day's  program  in  school  may  be 
upon  the  subject  of  "Trees  and  Their  Value,"  and  the 
pupils  may  take  a  part  of  the  day  to  plant  some  trees 
on  the  school  ground  as  suggested  in  the  chapter  on 
"Beautifying  the  School  Yard." 

Water  Required. — Trees  like  other  plants  require 
much  water,  an  apple  tree  of  medium  size  drinking  as 
much  as  a  barrel  of  water  per  day.  The  tree  takes  up 
a  part  of  its  food  in  solution  from  the  soil.  The 
growing  tree  seems  to  balance  its  growth  so  that  the 
root  system  will  take  in  enough  water  to  supply  the 
branches  with  moisture  in  order  to  keep  them  from 


146  FARM   PROJECTS 

wilting.  Water  is  constantly  being  evaporated  from 
the  leaves  so  that  there  is  a  constant  movement  of 
water  through  all  parts  of  the  tree.  This  is  the  reason 
it  was  suggested  that  you  should  prune  the  branches 
of  the  tree  which  was  newly  set.  Many  of  the  roots 
were  necessarily  lost  when  the  tree  was  taken  up  and 
if  the  tree  were  reset  with  all  its  branches  remaining 
as  they  were,  the  root  system  could  not  drink  in  enough 
water  to  supply  the  branches  and  keep  them  from 
wilting. 

Trees  for  Fence  Posts. — Although  the  iron  fence 
post  and  the  concrete  post  have  come  into  common 
usage,  there  will  always  be  need  for  wood  posts.  Some 
farmers  plant  rows  of  trees  such  as  the  catalpa  or  osage 
orange,  commonly  known  as  "hedge,"  along  fence  rows, 
expecting  to  use  them  later  as  posts.  Others  plant 
forest  plantations  with  these  trees  and  allow  them  to 
grow  into  post  material.  The  cedar  and  white  oak 
of  the  forest  make  excellent  fence  posts.  It  will  be 
interesting  to  observe  the  kind  of  wood  used  for  posts 
in  your  community.  Try  to  determine  the  relative 
lasting  qualities  of  the  different  kinds  of  fence  posts  by 
asking  farmers  who  have  used  different  kinds.  Every 
farm  should  have  a  place  for  a  small  plantation  of  trees. 

Adaptation  to  Climate  and  Soil. — Trees  like  other 
plants  adapt  themselves  to  surrounding  conditions, 
each  section  of  the  country  having  typical  trees.  Some 
trees  require  much  water  and  thus  are  found  growing 
in  humid  areas  while  others  are  able  to  grow  with  very 


TREES  147 

little  water  and  may  be  found  in  the  dry  areas.  Differ- 
ences in  the  root  systems  and  leafing  habits  make  it 
possible  for  trees  to  grow  in  different  climates.  Those 
with  branching  root  systems  and  broad  thin  leaves 
require  more  humid  climates  than  those  which  have  a 
long  tap  root  and  spiny  leaves.  The  oak  trees,  for 
instance,  are  found  growing  in  humid  climates,  while 
the  evergreens  are  found  in  cold  dry  climates.  The 
latter  are  so  called  because  they  remain  green  through- 
out the  winter.  The  oak  tree,  on  the  other  hand,  sheds 
its  leaves  each  autumn.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  leaves  of  the  white  oak,  though  they  turn  brown  in 
color,  remain  on  the  trees  most  of  the  winter.  A  study 
of  your  local  community  should  tell  you  what  trees  are 
typical  in  your  climate. 

Review  Questions 

1.  List  as  many  products  of  trees  in  your  community  as  you  can. 

2.  Give  complete  directions  for  planting  a  young  tree. 

3.  Why  should  the  top  be  pruned  when  a  tree  is  set? 

4.  Name  the  trees  most  commonly  found  in  your  community. 

5.  What  trees  are  used  most  extensively  for  lumber? 

6.  How  can  you  tell  the  age  of  a  tree  ? 

7.  Give  the  advantages  of  planting  trees  in  the  fall. 

8.  What  kinds  of  trees  are  used  for  fence  posts  in  your  locality? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  a  "humid  climate"? 

10.  Survey  your  home  lot  and  determine  the  location  and  the 
kinds  of  trees  you  will  set  out. 

11.  Decide  if  necessary  on  a  spot  to  plant  a  tree  or  trees  on  the 
school  lot. 


XXI 

LEGUMES 

Home  Work 

The  home  work  in  this  project  should  acquaint  you 
with  the  different  kinds  of  legumes  growing  in  your 
locality.  A  survey  of  the  farms  represented  by  the 
class  should  be  made,  in  order  to  find  out  the  number 
of  kinds  of  legumes  grown  on  these  farms.  Individual 
plants  of  the  legumes  found  in  the  community  should 
be  brought  to  school,  pressed,  and  mounted  on  card- 
board for  study.  If  an  old  alfalfa  field  is  available, 
take  up  some  of  the  plants.  Be  careful  to  preserve  the 
tap  root  which  is  the  long  central  root.  This  will 
require  much  digging,  but  it  will  be  worth  while  as  it 
illustrates  the  root  system  and  the  ability  of  the  plant 
to  reach  far  down  into  the  soil  for  moisture.  How 
long  are  the  roots  you  have  dugout  of  the  soil?  Tear 
a  clover  head  apart  and  count  the  single  flowers  in  the 
head.  How  many  do  you  find .?  Do  you  find  any  tiny 
insects  in  the  flowers.?  Observe  the  bumblebee  as  he 
goes  from  clover  blossom  to  clover  blossom  in  search  of 
nectar.  How  many  clover  heads  do  you  think  a  bumble- 
bee will  visit  in  a  minute?  Have  you  seen  other  kinds 
of  insects  sucking  nectar  from  the  clover  heads? 

148 


LEGUMES  149 

Tabulate  the  observations  of  the  class  as  follows: 


Kind  of  Leg- 
ume Observed 


Color  of 
Flower 


Kind  of  Root 
System 


Height  of 
Plant 


Acres  in 
Community 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Value  of  Clover. — One  frequently  hears  the  state- 
ment that  "clover  is  a  good  manure"  which  means  that 
it  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  the  soil.  The  importance  of 
clover  as  an  essential  to  good  crops  in  the  system  of 
grain  farming  is  being  appreciated  as  it  never  has  been 
before.  Farmers  realize  that  yields  of  good  grain  crops 
cannot  be  maintained  without  the  use  of  clover  or  some 
other  crop  which  is  very  closely  related  to  clover. 

Clover  Gathers  Nitrogen. — Years  ago  men  recognized 
the  value  of  clover  as  a  fertilizer,  but  they  did  not  know 
just  why  it  made  the  soil  richer.  We  know  now  that 
it  is  because  the  clover  has  the  power  to  transfer  nitrogen 
from  the  ^ir  to  the  soil.  It  is  on  this  food  that  the 
plants  thrive.  On  the  roots  of  the  clover  are  found 
little  pea-like  structures  called  nodules,  which  are  full 
of  little  bacteria.  The  bacteria  take  the  nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  work  it  over  into  nitrogen  compounds 
which  the  plant  takes  up  as  food.  Nitrogen  is  one  of 
the  most  important  food  elements  which  the  plant 
needs  and  when  it  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  soil 


ISO 


FARM   PROJECTS 


a  bumper  crop  is  produced.     If  there  is  little  nitrogen 
in  the  soil,  corn  will  have  a  sickly  yellow  color;   while 

if  there  is  much  nitrogen 
present,  the  leaves  will 
have  a  deep  green  color. 
What  Is  a  Legume? — 
Nitrogen  may  be  applied 
to  the  soil  in  the  form  of 
a  commercial  fertilizer, 
but  this  method  is  too 
expensive  except  on 
small  farms  where  inten- 
sive farming  is  carried 
on.  The  air  is  made  up 
of  approximately  four 
parts  nitrogen  and  one 
part  oxygen.  Since  there 
is  such  an  abundance 
available,  there  is  no 
need  for  any  farmer  to 
allow  his  crop  to  suffer 
for  want  of  this  impor- 
tant food  element.  Clover  and  plants  closely  related 
to  clover  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  when  the  plants 
are  turned  under,  this  nitrogen  becomes  available  to 
other  crops.  The  plants  which  have  the  power  of  taking 
nitrogen  from  the  air  are  called  legumes,  from  a  Latin 
word,  "legumen,"  which  means  to  gather.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  legumes,  but  only  a  few  are  commonly 


Courtesy  lUtnois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  36.  Note  the  little  balls  or  nod- 
ules ON  the  roots.   These  nodules 

ARE  FILLED  WITH  MICROSCOPIC  BACTE- 
RIA which  AID  THE  PLANT  IN  GETTING 
FOOD  FROM  THE  SOIL. 


LEGUMES 


1^1 


known.  The  most  important  of  the  legumes  are  clover, 
alfalfa,  cow  peas,  soy-beans,  garden  peas,  and  beans. 

Flowers  of  the  Legume. — The  legume  family  is  very 
peculiar  in  many  respects.  We  may  see  some  of  these 
peculiarities  by  examining  closely  the  flower  of  the 
sweet  pea  or  clover.  The  flower  is  called  a  closed 
flower;  that  is,  the  stamens  and  the  pistil  which  are 
concerned  in  the  production  of  the  seed  are  all  enclosed 
in  a  pocket-like  structure  which,  in  some  instances  such 
as  in  red  clover,  makes  it  impossible  for  the  plant  to 
produce  seed  without  the  aid  of*  insects.  The  in- 
sects in  flying  from  flower  to  flower  distribute  the 
pollen  which  they  gather  on  their  legs  incidentally 
while  searching  for  nectar  in  the  flower.  They  carry 
this  pollen  to  other  flowers  and  help  distribute  it  where 
it  is  needed  to  start  seed  growth. 

Legumes  Like  Sweet  Soil. — Another  peculiarity  of 
the  family  is  that  the  members  do  not  care  for  an  acid 
or  sour  soil.  They  must  have  a  sweet  soil  in  order  to 
thrive  properly.  Much  land  which  has  been  cropped 
for  a  long  period  of  time  has  developed  a  sourness  or 
acidity  which  checks  the  growth  of  clover  and  other 
legumes.  Experience  has  proved  that  the  application 
of  lime  to  the  soil  will  eliminate  this  sourness.  The 
application  of  lime  has  increased  the  yield  of  clover 
from  practically  none  to  over  three  tons  per  acre.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country,  clover  cannot  be  grown  at 
all  without  the  application  of  lime.  In  another  chapter 
the  use  of  limestone  is  discussed. 


152  FARM   PROJECTS 

Legumes  as  Feed. — Farm  boys  know  that  clover  hay, 
alfalfa,  or  cow-pea  hay  is  a  good  feed  for  milk  cows. 
These  crops  contain  large  amounts  of  nitrogen.  Milk 
also  contains  much  nitrogen.  The  cow  can  produce 
milk  much  more  economically  from  the  legumes  than 
from  such  roughage  as  timothy,  straw,  and  corn  fodder 
because  these  hays  do  not  contain  much  nitrogen. 
Legumes  are  excellent  feed  for  growing  live  stock. 
Pigs  thrive  in  clover  pastures,  and  chickens  lay  well 
when  they  can  get  green  clover  or  alfalfa  to  eat. 

Growing  Clovers! — Red  clover  is  one  of  the  most 
common  legumes  grown  in  the  United  States.  Its 
wide  use  as  a  hay  and  its  use  as  a  fertilizer  makes  it  a 
very  important  economic  crop.  Alfalfa  is  another  very 
valuable  legume.  Its  culture  will  be  discussed  in  a 
separate  section.  Clover  is  usually  sown  in  the  early 
spring,  sometimes  being  sown  in  the  wheat  and  some- 
times in  the  oats.  Frequently  if  the  season  is  not  ideal 
for  clover,  the  other  crops  grow  so  abundantly  that  the 
clover  is  smothered  out.  When  clover  is  used  in  a 
rotation  it  is  usually  allowed  to  "stand  over"  one 
year  after  the  year  it  is  planted.  At  least  one  crop  in 
four  years  should  be  turned  under  to  help  enrich  the 
soil. 

Clover  seed  and  seed  of  other  legumes  sell  for  high 
prices.  We  must  think  of  the  legumes  as  a  family  of 
plants  differing  from  other  plants  in  habit  of  growth, 
in  earmarks  of  the  plants,  and  in  cultural  methods 
required  for  their  growth. 


LEGUMES  153 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  How  does  a  legume  differ  from  other  plants? 

2.  In  what  way  is  clover  used  as  a  fertilizer? 

3.  On  what  kind  of  soil  will  clover  fail  to  grow? 

4.  What  is  nitrogen? 

5.  How  do  the  flowers  of  the  legume  differ  from  other  flowers? 

6.  What  is  the  feeding  value  of  legumes  ? 

7.  Name  the  common  legumes. 

8.  How  is  clover  usually  sown  ? 

9.  How  many  acres  of  alfalfa  were  grown  in  your  community 
last  year?  of  clover?  of  other  legumes? 

10.  Tell  of  the  experience  of  your  father  or  a  neighbor  in  grow- 
ing legumes. 

11.  At  what  time  in  the  year  is  clover  turned  under  in  your 
locality?  Can  you  suggest  a  reason  for  turning  it  under  at  this 
time? 

12.  Does  corn  grow  better  after  a  crop  of  clover  has  been  turned 
under  the  soil?  Does  clover  help  the  cotton  crop  in  the  same 
way  ? 


XXII 
ALFALFA 

Home  Work 

How  many  cuttings  of  alfalfa  may  be  made  in  your 
community?  Give  the  dates  of  these  cuttings.  What 
yields  are  obtained  ?  Compare  the  total  yields  of  alfalfa 
per  acre  with  the  yield  of  other  hays  grown  in  your 
community.  Study  the  method  of  harvesting  the  crop 
and  compare  it  with  the  methods  used  in  harvesting 
other  crops,  keeping  in  mind  the  labor  required,  time  of 
year,  curing,  storing,  and  danger  of  loss.  Can  alfalfa 
be  baled  from  the  shock  in  your  community  or  must 
it  be  stacked  or  put  in  the  shed  for  some  time  before 
it  is  baled.? 

Feed  alfalfa  together  with  other  hays  to  cattle  and 
horses.  Which  hay  is  relished  most.?  Feed  the  dry 
hay  to  hogs  and  note  the  result.  Feed  other  hays  to 
the  hogs.     Will  they  eat  timothy  and  clover.? 

Compare  the  market  quotations  on  alfalfa  with  other 
hays.  Such  quotations  may  be  found  in  any  city  papers. 
What  is  the  local  price  per  ton  paid  by  buyers.?  What 
margin  does  the  city  quotation  allow  the  buyer.?  What 
items  of  expense  must  be  paid  from  this  margin  by  the 
man  who  buys  from  the  farmer  and  ships  to  the  market? 

154 


ALFALFA  155 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

History  of  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  has  been  grown  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  records  of  its  growth  showing  that 
it  was  grown  many  hundreds  of  years  before  the  birth 
of  Christ.  It  has  been  grown  in  America  more  than  a 
century  but  has  not  obtained  the  foothold  which  it 
deserves  in  this  country.  Nevertheless,  the  crop  is 
rapidly  assuming  much  larger  proportions  as  compared 
with  other  crops.  Farmers  are  beginning  to  appreciate 
its  importance  as  a  legume  and  particularly  as  a  feed 
for  young  live  stock  and  milk  cows. 

At  present  most  of  the  alfalfa  grown  in  the  United 
States  is  produced  in  the  western  states,  for  it  is  well 
adapted  to  the  climate  of  this  region.  Its  root  system 
gives  it  a  place  also  among  the  crops  of  the  dry  climates, 
as  the  long  tap  root  can  go  to  great  depths  for  water. 
The  rich  soil  of  the  corn-belt  area  is  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  heavy  crops  of  alfalfa,  but  the  wet  seasons 
which  frequently  come  at  harvest  time,  especially  in 
the  early  summer,  have  limited  the  production  to  small 
areas.  Farmers  do  not  grow  alfalfa  on  a  large  scale 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  curing  the  hay  during  the 
wet  seasons.  As  farmers  become  better  equipped  for  the 
care  of  the  crop,  they  will  grow  larger  areas  on  the  corn- 
belt  farms.  Alfalfa  is  being  grown  in  many  sections  as 
a  legume  in  rotation,  often  taking  the  place  of  clover. 

Adds  Food  to  the  Soil. — Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  food  gatherers  among  the  legumes.     It  is  able 


iS6 


FARM  PROJECTS 


ALFALFA  157 

to  take  some  of  the  nitrogen  gas  from  the  air  and  turn 
it  into  food  for  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  roots 
have  large  numbers  of  the  pealike  structures  called 
nodules,  which  means  that  the  plant  is  well  supplied 
with  the  little  bacteria  which  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air.  When  the  crop  is  plowed  under,  this  nitrogen  is 
added  to  the  soil.  The  luxuriant  growth  of  roots,  stem, 
and  leaves  adds  much  humus  or  organic  matter  to  the 
soil  when  plowed  under.  The  crop  is  an  excellent  one 
to  grow  in  rotation  where  corn  is  grown. 

No  hay  crop  or  forage  crop  will  produce  better  re- 
sults when  fed  to  growing  live  stock  or  to  dairy  cows 
for  milk  production  than  alfalfa.  The  necessary  protein 
or  muscle  building  material  can  be  supplied  much  more 
cheaply  in  alfalfa  than  in  bran  or  other  more  concen- 
trated feeds.  Alfalfa  is  relished  by  live  stock,  especially 
cattle.    Farmers  feed  alfalfa  to  horses  with  good  results. 

The  root  system  consists  of  a  long  tap  root  which 
reaches  many  feet  into  the  soil,  and  a  few  smaller  roots 
near  the  surface.  It  is  stated  that  these  tap  roots  have 
been  found  to  reach  fifty  feet  below  the  surface,  along 
embankments.  At  any  rate,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  these 
roots  penetrate  to  great  depths  in  order  to  get  water  for 
the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  roots  also  gather  mineral 
substances  and  bring  them  to  the  upper  parts  of  the 
plant,  thus  enriching  the  surface  soil.  Alfalfa  requires 
about  one  thousand  times  its  own  weight  of  water  to 
complete  the  season's  growth;  that  is,  a  thousand  tons 
of  water  pass  through  the  plants  which  make  up  a 


158  FARM   PROJECTS 

ton  of  dry  hay  when  harvested.  However,  an  overflow 
will  drown  the  crop  very  quickly,  which  means  that  the 
soil  in  humid  climates  must  be  well  drained  before  it 
will  grow  alfalfa. 

A  sandy  loam  is  perhaps  the  best  type  of  soil  for 
growing  alfalfa  in  most  regions.  A  loose  soil  of  this 
type  allows  the  roots  to  penetrate  to  great  depths  and 
such  a  soil  is  usually  well  drained.  The  plant  will  not 
grow  well  in  sour  soil  for  the  bacteria  on  the  alfalfa 
roots  do  not  thrive  in  sour  soils  and  the  plant  is  thus 
unable  to  take  in  nitrogen  from  the  air.  Soil  which 
is  sour  may  be  made  good  for  growing  alfalfa  and 
clover  by  the  addition  of  limestone,  the  use  of  which 
is  discussed  elsewhere.  Farmers  should  not  waste 
time  and  seed  trying  to  grow  alfalfa  on  soil  that  is  sour 
until  plenty  of  limestone  has  been  added. 

The  microscopic  bacteria  which  grow  on  the  roots 
of  alfalfa  are  very  particular  about  their  hosts  or 
the  plants  upon  which  they  grow.  They  grow  upon 
the  roots  of  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover  and  are  not  likely 
to  be  found  in  new  fields.  Inasmuch  as  they  are 
necessary  to  the  best  growth  of  alfalfa,  farmers  should 
make  sure  that  the  soil  contains  plenty  of  bacteria. 
There  are  several  ways  of  introducing  them  into  new 
fields,  a  common  method  being  to  secure  a  wagon  load 
of  soil  from  an  old  field  of  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover  and 
spread  it  over  the  new  alfalfa  field.  It  may  seem  as 
though  a  wagon  load  of  ordinary  soil  would  do  very 
little  good  when  spread  over  a  field,  but  the  bacteria 


ALFALFA  159 

grow  very  rapidly  and  spread  widely  when  they  are 
once  started. 

Alfalfa  is  a  very  particular  plant  requiring  an  extra 
good  seed  bed.  Weeds  will  crowd  out  the  young 
plants  if  they  are  allowed  to  grow.  The  seed  must  not 
be  sowed  on  thawing  ground  as  clover  seed  is  sowed  in 
early  spring,  but  should  be  sowed  later  in  the  spring  or 
early  in  the  fall.  In  the  corn  belt,  both  times  are  con- 
sidered good  seeding  dates,  but  more  farmers  seed  in  the 
fall.  Whether  the  seed  is  sowed  in  the  fall  or  spring, 
the  soil  should  be  cultivated  for  several  weeks  before 
seeding  time  to  kill  the  weeds,  to  pulverize  the  soil,  and 
to  save  moisture;  this  usually  insures  an  ideal  seed  bed. 
Sometimes  alfalfa  is  sowed  with  oats  or  some  other 
"nurse  crop,"  but  there  is  danger  of  the  young  plants 
being  smothered  out  by  the  more  rapidly  growing  oats. 

Alfalfa  should  be  harvested  when  the  young  shoots 
which  are  to  make  the  next  crop  are  about  two  inches 
high.  These  shoots  grow  out  from  the  crown  of  the 
plant  and  can  be  easily  seen.  In  most  climates 
the  plants  are  just  beginning  to  bloom  at  the  time 
the  next  growth  starts.  If  the  alfalfa  is  cut  before  the 
next  growth  starts,  some  time  will  be  lost;  that  is,  a  full 
growth  is  not  secured,  and  if  the  cutting  is  delayed  until 
the  next  shoots  are  higher  than  two  inches,  the  sickle 
will  clip  the  tops  of  the  shoots  and  check  their  growth. 

The  hay  should  be  raked  with  a  side  delivery  rake 
within  a  few  hours  after  it  is  cut.  If  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  swath  longer  than  four  hours  on  a  good  "curing" 


i6o  FARM   PROJECTS 

day,  the  leaves  will  become  quite  dry  and  will  shatter 
off  when  the  hay  is  raked.  Much  of  the  food  value 
of  the  plant  is  contained  in  the  leaves.  The  hay  should 
be  put  into  tall  shocks  made  as  small  as  possible  in  order 
to  allow  it  to  cure.  It  will  cure  best  if  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  shock  for  several  days.  Hay  caps,  which  are 
canvas  coverings  for  the  shock  of  hay,  are  very  useful 
in  humid  climates  where  rain  is  likely  to  interfere  with 
the  harvest. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  On  the  community  map,  shade  in  green  the  portions  which 
were  planted  in  alfalfa  during  the  present  season.  Make  a  survey 
of  the  land  thus  devoted  to  alfalfa  to  see  whether  the  proper  soil 
was  used.  Study  the  soil  from  the  different  plots  devoted  to  alfalfa. 
Make  recommendations  for  next  year's  crops. 

2.  Determine  the  value  of  the  crop  in  the  community,  esti- 
mating the  yield  per  acre  as  the  same  as  was  grown  on  your  father's 
farm  or  on  some  other  farm  where  the  yield  is  known. 

3.  If  your  father  is  growing  alfalfa,  talk  to  him  about  the  value 
of  the  crop  and  write  a  report  of  your  talk  with  him.  If  he  does 
not  grow  alfalfa,  tell  him  what  you  have  learned  about  the  plant 
from  the  other  members  of  the  class. 

4.  How  many  tons  of  alfalfa  would  be  required  to  feed  the  cows 
on  your  father's  farm  during  the  winter  months.? 

5.  Test  for  acidity  the  soil  on  your  farm,  and  in  an  alfalfa  field. 
Take  a  small  ball  of  soil  from  a  depth  of  eight  inches;  wet  it,  and 
place  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  in  it.  If  the  paper  turns  pink, 
the  soil  is  sour  and  needs  some  lime.  The  litmus  paper  can  be 
secured  from  a  drug  store. 

6.  Enumerate  the  things  you  have  learned  in  this  study  which 
will  help  you  in  growing  your  alfalfa  crop. 


XXIII 
GROWING  COTTON 

Home  Work 

Select  seed  from  the  field  before  the  main  crop  is  har- 
vested.    Study  individual  plants  and  note  differences. 

If  possible  visit  a  field  of  cotton  during  picking  time. 
How  is  the  cotton  handled  in  the  field  ?  What  does  it 
cost  to  get  the  cotton  picked?  Can  you  suggest  any 
way  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  plan  now  being 
used .? 

Go  to  a  field  that  has  been  planted  in  cotton  year 
after  year  without  any  crop  rotation,  and  compare  the 
crop  with  the  crop  on  a  field  where  crop  rotation  has 
been  carefully  practiced. 

What  insects  can  you  find  in  the  cotton  field  that  do 
damage  to  the  crop.?  Each  pupil  should  visit  a  gin 
and  observe  the  methods  of  caring  for  the  cotton.  How 
is  cotton  baled .?  What  is  the  average  weight  of  each 
of  the  bales  of  cotton?  How  are  the  bales  handled? 
Find  out  the  relative  value  of  the  seed  and  the  fibre 
of  cotton.  Describe  the  method  of  preparing  the  soil  for 
the  cotton  crop  which  is  used  in  your  community.  Is 
any  system  of  crop  rotation  used?  If  so,  what  crop  is 
planted  instead  of  cotton  ? 

i6i 


i62  FARM   PROJECTS 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Importance. — Cotton  is  one  of  the  most  important 
products  of  the  farms  of  the  United  States.  It  requires 
a  warm  climate,  so  is  found  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States.  More  cotton  is  grown  in  Texas  than 
in  any  other  state.  Cotton  is  manufactured  into 
clothing  and  other  commodities.  Cotton  manufacture 
is  perhaps  the  most  important  single  industry  related 
to  the  farm. 

The  Plant. — Inasmuch  as  cotton  growing  is  confined 
to  the  southern  states  it  will  be  of  interest  to  northern 
pupils  to  know  something  about  the  plant  which  pro- 
duces the  material  for  so  much  of  our  clothing.  The 
plant  is  related  to  the  common  hollyhock  which  is 
widely  grown  for  its  beautiful  flowers.  The  leaves 
and  flowers  on  the  two  plants  are  similar.  The  plants 
are  rather  woody  and  much  branched. 

Fibre  and  Seed. — The  fibre  of  cotton  constitutes 
about  one  tenth  of  the  weight  of  the  plant  while  about 
one  fifth  of  the  weight  is  seed.  The  fibre  is  spun  and 
woven  into  cloth  and  the  seeds  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  various  by-products,  such  as  feeds,  oil,  and 
fertilizer.  Cottonseed  meal  is  a  ground  feed  used 
as  a  feed  for  cattle  and  some  other  animals.  The  meal 
is  very  rich  in  protein  which  makes  it  valuable  as  a  part 
of  the  milk  cow's  daily  ration. 

Growing  Cotton. — Cotton  is  planted  in  the  spring 
after  the  danger  from  frost  is  past.     It  is  planted  in 


GROWING  COTTON  163 

rows  much  the  same  as  corn,  but  it  is  necessary  to 
plant  an  abundance  of  seed  and  thin  the  plants  later 
because  so  many  seeds  do  not  germinate.  The  seed 
bed  should  be  particularly  well  prepared  in  order  to 
give  the  young  plants  a  start.  The  plants  are  delicate 
and  require  frequent  cultivation  at  first.  The  soil 
should  be  kept  loose  and  free  from  weeds. 

Marketing. — The  marketing  of  cotton  is  an  expen- 
sive process.  The  locks  of  lint  and  seed  are  picked 
from  the  bolls  by  hand.  One  individual  may  pick  as 
much  as  500  pounds  in  a  day  though  that  amount 
is  unusual  and  200  pounds  is  a  good  day's  work. 
Machine  picking  is  not  satisfactory  because  so  much 
trash  is  picked  with  the  cotton.  From  the  field 
the  cotton  is  hauled  to  the  elevator  where  the  seed  is 
removed  by  the  machine  called  a  cotton  gin.  After 
the  seed  has  been  removed,  the  lint  is  baled  for  ship- 
ment to  factories.  The  bales  weigh  about  500  pounds 
each. 

Summary. — There  is  little  doubt  that  cotton  will 
hold  its  high  rank  among  farm  crops  in  the  United 
States  because  of  the  increased  demand  for  the  manu- 
factured products  made  from  cotton.  One  of  the 
most  important  movements  in  the  south  has  been  the 
changing  from  a  one-crop  system  to  a  system  of  crop 
rotation,  including  the  growth  of  legumes  one  year 
in  the  rotation.  This  system  helps  to  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  to  keep  down  the  damage  by 
insects. 


i64  FARM   PROJECTS 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  different  kinds  of  cotton   are  produced  in  your  com- 
munity? 

2.  How  is  the  seed  separated  from  the  lint  ? 

3.  Tell  how  cotton  is  planted. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  rotating  crops? 

5.  Describe  the  cotton  plant. 

6.  Can  you  find  the  date  when  the  cotton  gin  was   invented  ? 
Who  invented  it? 

7.  Find  out  what  insects  damage  cotton  in  your  community. 

8.  What  becomes  of  the  stalks  after  the  cotton  is  picked  ? 


SECOND  YEAR 


I 


BETTER   EGG   PRODUCTION 

Home  Work 

Culling  the  Flock. — One  of  the  most  important  fac- 
tors in  egg  production  is  the  selection  of  layers.  Hens 
that  do  not  lay  for  long 
periods  of  time  are  not 
profitable.  Each  pupil 
should  secure  the  co- 
operation of  some  one  at 
home  and  cull  the  home 
flock  in  order  to  weed  out 
the  non-producers.  Cull- 
ing not  only  insures  more 
egg  production  from  your 
flock,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  cull  if  one  wishes  to 
"breed  up"  a  flock  to 
higher  production. 

When  to  Cull.— The 
culling  should  be  done  as 
early  in  the  fall  as  possible.  August  and  September  are 
the  best  months.  This  exercise  should  be  one  of  the 
first  ones  undertaken  by  the  class  in  the  fall.     Of  course 

167 


©  Uiid:rwjJd  is"  U ndcrwj.d,  A.  Y . 

Fig.  38.^" Lady  Eglantine,"  a  white 
leghorn  hen  which  laid  314    eggs 

IN  365  DAYS 


i68  FARM   PROJECTS 

whenever  undesirable  hens  are  found  in  the  flock  they 
should  be  culled  out.  Why  cull  in  these  months? 
When  do  the  hens  begin  to  molt?  When  are  most  of 
the  eggs  produced  ? 

Culling. — The  flock  should  be  "shut  in"  at  night  in 
rather  close  quarters  so  the  hens  can  be  easily  caught. 
There  should  be  two  persons  working  together  in  culling 
the  flock.  One  should  catch  the  hens  and  hand  them 
to  the  person  who  is  doing  the  culling.  The  hens 
which  are  to  be  disposed  of  should  be  put  into  a  coop, 
at  once.  The  best  ones  which  are  to  be  used  in  the 
breeding  pen  should  be  marked  with  leg  bands.  Cull 
in  the  daytime  when  there  is  good  light  in  order  to 
determine  the  color  of  beak,  shank,  and  skin  about 
the  vent. 

Hens  to  Be  Removed. — The  sick  hen  should  be  re- 
moved first  of  all  for  she  does  not  lay  and  she  spreads 
disease.  Sickness  is  indicated  by  a  drooping  attitude, 
bluish-colored  comb,  poor  appetite,  dull  eyes,  and 
general  dullness.  Sick  hens  should  be  killed  unless 
the  trouble  seems  to  be  temporary,  in  which  case  they 
should  be  separated  from  the  flock  and  given  special 
attention. 

All  hens  that  are  well  along  in  the  molt  before 
September  are  likely  to  lay  for  short  periods  and 
should  be  removed  from  the  flock.  Retain  the  ones 
which  do  not  begin  to  molt  until  late  in  the  fall,  for 
they  will  lay  longer  in  the  season  and  molt  much  more 
quickly. 


BETTER   EGG  PRODUCTION  169 

Hens  which  have  deep  yellow  shanks  and  beaks  at 
this  time  of  year  are  not  laying.  This,  of  course,  will 
not  be  an  indication  in  the  case  of  birds  which  have 
light-colored  shanks  naturally. 

The  comb  is  another  indication  of  a  laying  hen. 
When  a  hen  is  laying,  the  comb  will  be  large,  waxy,  and 
red  in  color,  and  when  laying  ceases,  the  comb  becomes 
shrunken,  pale,  and  scaly.  It  is  our  purpose  to  cull 
out  the  non-layers  at  this  season,  so  the  comb  will  be 
an  easy  guide,  but  the  other  points  should  also  be 
considered. 

When  the  hen  is  in  a  laying  condition,  the  body  fat 
is  reduced.  The  pelvic  bones,  the  ones  which  can  be 
felt  on  either  side  of  the  vent,  become  thin  and  flexible 
in  the  laying  season.  They  are  far  enough  apart  in 
most  laying  hens  to  admit  the  spread  of  from  three  to 
five  fingers  of  a  person's  hand.  If  not  more  than  two 
fingers  can  be  placed  between  these  bones,  the  hen 
is  probably  not  laying.  Laying  hens  are  of  course 
eating  large  quantities  of  food  and  consequently  the 
abdomen  is  larger,  looser,  and  more  flabby  than  in  the 
case  of  the  non-laying  hen.  Hens  with  a  smooth, 
contracted,  neat  appearance  at  this  time  are  usually 
not  laying  and  should  be  culled  out.  The  skin  cover- 
ing the  abdomen  is  soft,  moist,  and  pliable  in  laying 
hens.  It  loses  its  yellow  color  when  the  hen  is  laying, 
due  to  the  loss  of  body  fat  at  this  time.  Hens  with 
tight,  dry,  hard,  fatty  vents  should  be  discarded  as 
non-layers. 


lyo  FARM   PROJECTS 

It  will  be  unprofitable  to  keep  hens  that  have  stopped 
laying  as  early  as  August  or  September,  so  they  should 
be  sold  from  the  farm.  An  exception  should  be  made 
in  the  case  of  hens  that  have  raised  a  flock  and  that 
have  not  yet  begun  to  lay  after  their  vacation.  The 
general  indications  of  laying  ability  in  such  hens  should 
be  used  as  an  index  to  tell  whether  or  not  they  should 
be  sold  from  the  flock.  Old  hens  that  seem  to  have 
outlived  their  usefulness  should  be  sold  from  the  flock. 

It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  at  this  time  to  dis- 
cover the  pullets  which  will  prove  to  be  poor  layers. 
However,  if  some  of  the  pullets  are  to  be  sold  they 
should  be  picked  carefully.  Save  the  most  thrifty 
ones  which  show  early  maturity,  good  color,  and 
well-developed  bodies.  Pullets  with  long,  snakelike 
heads  are  not  desirable. 

The  Breeding  Pen. — Later  in  the  fall  the  hens  which 
lay  longest  and  molt  late  should  be  separated  and 
placed  in  a  pen  by  themselves.  The  eggs  from  this 
pen  should  be  used  for  hatching.  The  pullets  of  next 
year's  flock  are  more  apt  to  have  good  laying  qualities 
if  hatched  from  eggs  produced  by  the  long  period  layers. 
The  pullets  should  be  used  the  first  year  as  layers  and 
hatching  eggs  should  be  taken  only  from  the  hens  which 
have  shown  their  ability  to  produce.  Most  farmers 
do  not  take  the  time  to  make  up  the  breeding  pen  as 
a  separate  part  of  the  flock,  but  it  will  pay  big  returns 
to  do  so.  Boys  and  girls  can  render  a  good  service  by 
helping  their  parents  choose  the  hens  for  this  pen. 


BETTER   EGG  PRODUCTION 


171 


Fig.  39. — This  boy,  fifteen  years  old,  sold  more  than  i?40o  worth  of  eggs 

AND  chickens  FROM  HIS  BACK-YARD  PLANT  IN  ONE  YEAR. 


172  FARM   PROJECTS 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

The  Farm  Flock. — The  production  of  food  by  main- 
taining farm  flocks  of  pouhry  has  been  increasing  very 
rapidly.  The  possibilities,  however,  of  such  produc- 
tion have  not  been  realized  or  even  approached. 
Almost  a  billion  dollars  worth  of  products  come  from 
the  poultry  yards  of  the  United  States  each  year.  Boys 
and  girls  can  do  much  to  lower  the  cost  of  living  by 
helping  to  make  the  poultry  yard  more  productive. 

Choosing  a  Breed. — There  are  many  reasons  why 
every  farm  should  produce  chickens  of  a  single  breed, 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  most  of  the  flocks  found  on  the 
farms  are  not  of  a  pure  breed.  The  mongrel  flock  has  been 
the  cause  of  much  failure  in  the  poultry  yards.  There 
are  many  breeds  of  poultry  and  more  than  a  hundred 
varieties  so  that  any  farmer  may  have  his  choice  of 
breeds  and  varieties.  The  preference  of  the  farmer  and 
of  his  wife  should  be  one  of  the  important  factors  in 
choosing  a  breed.  The  poultry  will  get  better  care  if 
it  is  the  choice  of  the  person  caring  for  it.  The  Amer- 
ican breeds  are  very  popular  for  farm  flocks  in  the 
United  States.  They  are  good  egg  producers  and  at 
the  same  time  produce  a  good  quality  and  quantity 
of  food  in  the  form  of  meat. 

Breedmg  Up.^ — If  one  has  a  mongrel  flock  of  chickens, 
there  is  a  possibility  of  producing  a  better  flock  and  of 
grading  up  the  flock  to  a  state  which  is  practically 
*' full-blooded"  or  pure-bred.     To  grade  up  a  flock,  the 


BETTER   EGG  PRODUCTION  173 

best  layers  should  be  selected  each  year  for  the  breeding 
pen  and  males  from  high-producing  flocks  should  be 
used.  Many  farmers  believe  that  all  that  is  necessary 
to  improve  the  flock  is  to  introduce  "new  blood"  from 
year  to  year.  New  blood  alone  will  not  improve  the 
flock.  The  new  blood  should  be  obtained  from  a  good 
strain  of  poultry  or,  in  other  words,  from  a  high-pro- 
ducing flock. 

Selection  of  Birds. — Directions  have  been  given  for 
the  culling  of  a  flock  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  the 
layers.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  up  the  vigor  of 
the  flock  by  discarding  the  weaker  birds  whenever 
found.  The  flock  should  be  selected  with  a  view  to 
egg  production,  which  depends  upon  the  ability  of  the 
hens  to  eat  food  and  to  turn  this  food  into  eggs.  There- 
fore, the  hens  should  be  selected  with  regard  to  their 
ability  to  eat  and  digest  large  quantities  of  food. 

Feeding  the  Flock. — Pupils  should  read  the  chapter 
on  Feeding  Animals  to  learn  the  food  nutrients  and 
the  purposes  for  which  they  are  fed.  The  essentials 
of  poultry  feeding  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

1.  Allow  the  flock  plenty  of  fresh,  clean  water  at  all  times.  It 
is  surprising  to  note  the  amount  of  water  which  chickens  will  drink 
in  warm  weather.  In  cold  weather  the  water  should  be  warmed. 
It  may  be  kept  warm  by  keeping  it  in  double-walled  fountains 
which  may  be  purchased  on  the  market. 

2.  Hens  require  grit  for  the  purpose  of  grinding  the  food  when 
it  is  taken  into  the  gizzard,  and  oyster  shell  or  limestone  is  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  eggshell.  The  oyster  shell,  however,  does 
not  take  the  place  of  the  grit  which  is  necessary  for  grinding  food. 


174  FARM   PROJECTS 

3.  Green  food  of  some  kind  is  necessary  for  the  best  production 
of  eggs.  Sprouted  oats  are  good  for  winter  food.  The  oats  should 
be  soaked  for  twenty-four  hours,  then  placed  in  a  pan  in  a  layer 
about  three  inches  deep.  Keep  in  a  moderately  warm  place, 
sprinkling  with  water  from  day  to  day  as  needed.  The  oats 
should  be  ready  to  feed  in  a  week's  time.  Chopped  alfalfa  or 
clover  is  excellent  green  food  for  the  flock  and  is  more  palatable 
when  steamed  or  wet  with  hot  water. 

4.  Meat  scraps  or  skim  milk  make  good  animal  foods  for  egg 
production.  Some  kind  of  animal  food  is  necessary  for  egg  produc- 
tion. 

5.  A  mixture  of  corn,  oats,  and  wheat  makes  a  very  desirable 
grain  mixture  for  laying  hens.     The  grain  should  be  fed  whole. 

6.  Mashes  are  usually  made  by  mixing  bran,  shorts,  meat 
scraps,  and  other  ground  feeds.  The  mash  may  be  fed  dry  in  self- 
feeders,  but  is  sometimes  fed  wet.  There  is  more  danger  of  con- 
tamination, however,  if  the  mash  is  fed  wet. 

7.  A  scratching  place  should  be  provided  for  the  hens  by  keep- 
ing straw  or  other  litter  in  a  part  of  the  house.  The  grain  may  be 
fed  in  this  scratching  place. 

Housing. — Plenty  of  sunshine  and  exercise  are  essen- 
tial to  the  best  results  in  the  poultry  yard.  The 
runway  should  be  dry  and  protected  from  the  cold 
weather.  Winter  eggs  cannot  be  secured  when  hens 
must  remain  out  in  the  cold  most  of  the  time.  They 
should  be  provided  with  ample  housing  room  and 
should  be  kept  warm.  Hens  should  begin  laying  early 
in  the  winter,  if  they  are  properly  fed  and  housed.  A 
house  twenty  feet  square  is  large  enough  for  fifty  to 
seventy-five  hens  of  the  American  breeds.  The  walls 
should  be  very  carefully  covered  with  building  paper 


BETTER   EGG  PRODUCTION  175 

if  there  are  cracks  or  knot  holes,  as  draughts  cause 
colds.  Plenty  of  fresh  air  should  be  provided  at  all 
times.  The  south  side  of  the  house  may  have  windows 
covered  with  cheese  cloth  during  the  winter,  and  at 
no  time  should  the  house  be  entirely  closed. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — The  incubator  is  a  common 
device  on  the  farm  now,  its  use  having  become  almost 
universal  in  the  United  States.  Eggs  for  the  incubator 
should  be  carefully  selected,  those  which  are  uniform 
in  size  and  color,  and  which  have  good  shape  being  best 
for  hatching.  Eggs  for  hatching  should  not  be  washed, 
as  washing  removes  a  fine  outer  coating  which  protects 
the  pores  in  the  shell.  Use  only  clean  fresh  eggs. 
They  should  be  gathered  several  times  a  day  in  cold 
weather  to  prevent  chilling.  If  the  eggs  are  to  be  kept 
for  some  time  before  they  are  given  to  the  hen  or 
placed  in  the  incubator,  they  should  be  turned 
frequently.  Make  sure  that  eggs  for  hatching  are 
taken  from  the  best  layers  on  the  farm.  This  can 
be  done  only  when  the  best  layers  are  separated  and 
placed  in  a  pen  away  from  the  remainder  of  the  flock. 
It  is  important  to  hatch  chickens  as  early  as  possible 
in  order  to  have  early-matured  pullets  for  winter  laying. 
The  cockerels  bring  the  highest  prices  when  they  can 
be  put  on  the  early  spring  market  as  *'frys"  or 
broilers. 

Care  of  Young  Chicks. — A  very  important  part  of 
egg  production  on  the  farm  is  the  proper  care  and 
feeding  of  the  young  chicks,  as  they  are  to  grow  into 


176  FARM   PROJECTS 

the  layers  for  the  next  year.  All  weaklings  or  cripples 
should  be  killed,  for  they  will  never  develop  into 
healthy,  robust  chickens  and  in  many  cases  they  spread 
disease  among  the  remainder  of  the  chicks.  Much 
depends  upon  the  first  few  days  of  a  chick's  life.  No 
food  should  be  given  for  the  first  thirty-six  hours,  as 
there  is  sufficient  nourishment  in  the  body  of  the  newly 
hatched  chick  to  nourish  it  for  that  length  of  time. 
If  more  food  is  eaten,  the  digestive  tract  is  overladen 
and  digestive  disorders  soon  arise.  If  the  chicks  are 
hatched  early,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  well-ventilated 
brooder  as  long  as  necessary  to  protect  them  from  the 
cold.  Many  farms  are  equipped  with  brooder  houses 
containing  brooder  stoves. 

Little  chicks  should  be  fed  a  mash  and  grain  which 
is  rich  in  mineral  matter  and  protein.  No  one  ration 
is  best  for  producing  growth  in  young  chicks.  The 
grain  usually  consists  of  wheat  and  cracked  corn.  The 
mash  should  contain  wheat  bran,  corn  meal,  beef  scraps 
and  bone  meal,  a  large  proportion  of  corn  meal  being 
desirable.  No  feed  that  is  not  clean  and  wholesome 
should  be  allowed  in  the  feed  troughs  for  young  chicks, 
as  much  disease  results  from  unsanitary  methods  in 
feeding.  Skim  milk  is  an  excellent  supplement  to  grain 
rations  for  chicks,  but  should  be  fed  in  amounts  which 
the  chicks  will  drink  and  should  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  pans  to  become  sour  and  contaminated. 

Pullets  for  Laying. — The  pullets  and  cockerels  should 
be  separated  wherever  it  is  practicable  to  do  so,  as  the 


BETTER   EGG  PRODUCTION  177 

cockerels  get  most  of  the  feed  when  they  are  fed  to- 
gether. On  most  farms,  however,  this  is  not  practicable 
and  in  such  cases  the  grain  should  be  scattered  over 
an  area  large  enough  to  insure  the  pullets  a  good  meal. 
It  is  important  to  give  the  pullets  all  the  opportunity 
for  growth  possible  as  they  are  to  be  the  winter  lay- 
ers. A  wide  range  is  essential  to  the  development 
of  good  pullets. 

To  Produce  Infertile  Eggs. — The  larger  percentage 
of  spoiled  eggs  which  have  spoiled  somewhere  along 
the  line  between  the  nest  and  the  consumer  are  spoiled 
because  they  are  fertile  and  thus  contain  a  live,  growing 
germ  cell  which  will  grow  into  a  chick  if  given  the  proper 
temperature  and  time.  Eggs  which  are  infertile  do 
not  spoil  so  quickly.  Infertile  eggs  may  be  produced 
through  the  summer  by  selling,  killing,  or  confining  the 
males  as  soon  as  the  hatching  season  is  over.  Roosters 
in  no  way  increase  the  egg  supply  and  are  useless  in  the 
flock  after  the  hatching  season  has  closed. 

Lice  and  Mites. — Chicken  lice  and  mites  cause  the 
hens  to  stop  laying.  They  sometimes  weaken  little 
chicks  so  much  that  they  die.  All  roosts  and  houses 
should  be  whitewashed  and  sprayed  with  disinfectants. 
Sanitation  is  the  best  preventive,  but  if  lice  are  found 
on  the  chickens,  use  blue  ointment  or  lice  powder  until 
all  lice  are  exterminated. 

Disease. — Badly  diseased  chickens  should  always 
be  killed  and  burned  to  prevent  further  spread  of  the 
disease.     Light  colds  and  similar  disorders  can  be  cured. 


178  FARM   PROJECTS 

Fresh  air  and  sanitation  are  good  preventives.  The 
houses  should  be  cleaned  frequently  and  the  yard  must 
be  kept  clean.  It  is  well  to  have  greens  growing  in 
parts  of  the  yard.  Remove  all  rubbish  and  filth  which 
might  harbor  germs. 

Write  to  your  experiment  station  and  ask  for  circulars 
on  diseases  of  poultry. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  is  meant  by  culling  the  flock  ? 

2.  Let  a  member  of  the  class  bring  a  hen  to  school  to  illustrate 
the  qualities  or  earmarks  of  a  laying  hen.  Another  member  may 
bring  a  hen  which  illustrates  the  opposite  type. 

3.  How  much  time  is  required  for  culling  a  flock  of  fifty  hens? 

4.  How  many  hens  in  your  flock  lay  during  the  winter  ? 

5.  When  do  pullets  begin  to  lay  in  your  locality .?  What  would 
cause  them  to  lay  earlier  in  the  fall.? 

6.  Why  should  hens  lose  the  yellow  coloring  from  the  beaks  and 
shanks  when  they  are  laying.? 

7.  Name  rations  that  are  fed  for  egg  production  on  the  farms 
of  the  class. 

8.  What  breeds  are  kept  on  these  farms.? 

9.  What  is  the  average  size  of  the  farm  flocks  in  the  county .? 
10.    What  provisions  are  you  making  for  culling  the  home  flock? 

Is  it  economical  to  cull  the  flock? 


II 

BREEDS  OF   POULTRY 

Home  Work 

The  purpose  of  this  home  work  is  to  show  you  how 
you  may  become  acquainted  with  the  different  breeds  of 
poultry  to  be  found  in  the  school  community.  A  sur- 
vey of  several  farms  should  be  made  by  members  of  the 
class  to  determine  the  number  of  fowls  belonging  to 
each  breed  represented,  and  the  number  of  cross-bred 
or  mixed  fowls  in  the  district.  Perhaps  you  can  plan 
your  survey  in  such  a  way  that  the  entire  district  may 
be  canvassed  by  the  various  members  of  the  class.  At 
the  end  of  the  week  the  results  may  be  tabulated  on 
an  outline  similar  to  the  following: 


Breeds 

Number  of  Fowls 

Number  of  Farms 

Average  Number 
per  Farm 

179 


i8o 


FARM   PROJECTS 


Make  a  careful  comparison  of  the  breeds  observed, 
noting  the  differences  among  the  breeds  and  the  pecu- 
Harities  or  particular  markings  of  each  breed.  A 
suggested  form  for  tabulating  the  results  is  as  follows: 


Breed 

Variety 

Color 

Size 

Color  of 
Egg 

Color  of 
Shank 

Comb 

Leghorn 
Langshan 

White 
Black 

White 
Black 

Small 
Large 

White 
Brown 

Yellow 
Blue 

Single 
Single 

Make  such  observations  and  calculations  as  are 
necessary  to  answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  is  the  earmark  by  which  you  can  recognize  the  follow- 
ing breeds  of  poultry: — Barred  Plymouth  Rock?  White  Plym- 
outh Rock?  White  Wyandotte?  White  Leghorn?  BufF  Or- 
pington? Ancona?  Black  Langshan?  Light  Brahma?  Rhode 
Island  Red?  (These  are  common  breeds  and  may  be  found 
in  most  localities.) 

2.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  average  weight  of  five  Plymouth 
Rock  hens  and  five  White  Leghorn  hens? 

3.  How  many  points  on  the  comb  of  the  White  Le^^horn  ? 
(Count  the  points  on  several  and  average  the  number.) 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  comb  of  the  Wyandotte 
and  that  of  the  Plymouth  Rock? 

5.  Does  the  color  of  the  legs  vary  among  individuals  of  any  one 
breed  ?     Do  all  breeds  have  legs  of  the  same  color? 

6.  What  is  the  color  of  the  eggs  produced  by  Leghorns?  OF 
those  produced  by  Plymouth  Rocks?  Langshans?  Brahmas? 
Rhode  Island  Reds? 

7.  What  is  the  average  weight  of  a  dozen  eggs  produced  on  \^our 
farm?      (Weigh  several  dozen  and  calculate  the  average  weight.) 

8.  What  is  the  average  production  per  hen  on  your  farm  for 
the  month  in  which  this  study  is  made? 


BREEDS  OF   POULTRY 


i8i 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Groups  of  Chickens. — All  chickens  may  be  grouped 
according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  kept. 
Some  chickens  are  raised  mainly  for  eggs,  so  they  are 
grouped  together  and  called  the  egg  type,  while  others 
are  raised  for  meat  and  are  called  the  meat  type.  Such 
chickens  as  the 
Plymouth  Rock 
are  raised  for  both 
purposes  and  are 
called  dual-pur- 
pose chickens. 
There  are  other 
types,  such  as  the 
ornamental  birds. 

These  general 
types  are  divided 
into  smaller 
groups.  Most 
boys  and  girls  are 
familiar  with  such 
terms  as  Leghorn, 
Plymouth  Rock, 
R  hode  Island 
Red.  When  the  term  Leghorn  is  mentioned,  we  think  of 
a  group  of  chickens  in  which  the  individuals  are  much 
alike.  The  birds  of  this  name  are  small,  slender,  neat, 
active,  have  large  combs,  and  lay  white  eggs.    Such  a 


©  Underwood  iS"  Under^'iod,  X.  Y. 

Fig.  40.    Barred  Plymolth  Rock  rooster 


l82 


FARM   PROJECTS 


group  of  chickens  is  called  a  breed  and  the  individuals 
belonging  to  a  breed  are  very  much  alike  in  form,  size, 
activity,  and  color  of  tgg.  But  there  are  White  Leg- 
horns and  Brown 
Leghorns,  which 
suggest  that  even 
the  breed  may 
be  divided  into 
groups.  The 
groups  which  are 
distinguished  by 
color  are  called 
varieties,  thus,  the 
White  Leghorn 
is  a  variety  with- 
in the  Leghorn 
breed.  Even 
smaller  groups 
called  subvarieties 
are  characterized  by  such  an  earmark  as  the  comb. 
There  are  rose-comb  White  Leghorns  and  single-comb 
White  Leghorns.  Thus  the  single-comb  White  Leghorn 
belongs  to  the  egg  type,  Leghorn  breed,  white  variety, 
and  single-comb  subvariety. 

There  are  more  than  40  breeds  of  chickens  and  more 
than  125  varieties.  Compare  this  number  with  the 
number  of  breeds  and  varieties  which  you  find  repre- 
sented in  your  community.  Some  attention  will  be 
given  here  to  the  most  important  breeds. 


©  Underwjod  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 
Fig.  41.    A  White  Wyandotte  rooster  which 

WON   THIS    PRIZE A    JAPANESE    VASE    7OO   YEARS 

OLD AS     THE     FINEST    COCK     AT    THE     MaDISON 

Square  Garden  poultry  show  in  New  York 


BREEDS  OF   POULTRY  183 

The  American  Class. — There  are  twelve  classes  or 
large  groups  of  chickens,  but  not  all  are  of  great  eco- 
nomic importance.  To  the  American  boy  or  girl  the 
American  group  or  class  is  of  great  interest.  This 
class  includes  six  breeds: — Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte, 
Java,  Dominique,  Buckeye,  and  Rhode  Island  Red, 
all  belonging  to  the  dual-purpose  type  of  chicken.  It 
is  true,  however,  that  egg  production  is  the  main 
purpose  which  farmers  have  in  mind  now  when  breeding 
poultry.  The  American  breeds  are  good  layers  and  at 
the  same  time  produce  a  good  quality  of  meat  as  a  by- 
product as  they  are  much  heavier  than  the  chickens 
of  the  real  egg  type. 

The  Plymouth  Rock  is  the  most  commonly  known 
breed  among  this  class.  The  breed  was  developed  just 
after  the  Civil  War.  There  are  six  varieties: — Barred, 
White,  Buff,  Silver  Penciled,  Partridge,  and  Colum- 
bian. They  are  good  layers  and  mature  quickly,  the 
latter  fact  making  them  very  desirable  for  meat 
purposes  as  they  produce  early  "frys. "  Egg  produc- 
tion is  a  characteristic  which  is  developed  not  only 
by  breed  but  by  strains  within  a  breed.  The  Plymouth 
Rocks  stand  high  in  egg  production  contests,  for  there 
have  been  egg  strains  developed  to  a  very  high  degree 
of  perfection  within  the  breed. 

The  Rhode  Island  Red  is  one  of  the  newest  breeds 
to  be  developed  in  this  country.  The  members  of 
this  breed  possess  many  very  desirable  qualities.  The 
eggs  are  large,  have  a  smooth,  brown  shell,  and  are 


1 84 


FARM   PROJECTS 


uniform  in  size;  the  birds  mature  quickly  and  produce 
meat  of  an  excellent  quality.  The  red  color  is  very 
beautiful.     The  males  are  darker  in  color,  possessing 

a  glossy  dark  red  plum- 
age which  is  very  desir- 
able from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  fancier. 
There  are  rose-comb  and 
single-comb  Rhode  Is- 
land Reds  and  a  white 
variety  has  also  been  de- 
veloped. 

The  Mediterranean 
Class. — This  group  of 
chickens  includes  the 
Leghorn,  Minorca,  An- 
cona,  Andalusian,  and 
Spanish  breeds,  the  most  common  being  the  Leghorn. 
The  Leghorn  lays  large  pure  white  eggs.  The  birds  are 
much  smaller  than  the  American  breeds,  weighing  less 
than  five  pounds,  and  are  not  so  much  in  demand  for 
meat  purposes.  They  are  very  active,  are  good  foragers, 
and  are  excellent  producers  of  eggs. 

The  Asiatic  Class. — This  class  is  known  as  the  meat 
class,  and  includes  the  Langshan,  Brahma,  and  Cochin 
breeds.  Much  attention  is  being  given  to  breeding 
these  chickens,  particularly  for  meat  purposes;  but 
some  strains  of  these  breeds  are  excellent  layers  as  well 
as  good   meat   producers.     These   breeds   are  not   so 


©  Underwood  &*  Underwoid,  .V.  i'. 

Fig.  42,    A  Rhode  Island  Red 


COCKEREL 


BREEDS  OF   POULTRY  185 

active  as  those  of  other  classes.  The  birds  have  feathered 
legs,  which  distinguish  them  from  most  other  breeds. 

The  English  Class. — One  breed  of  the  English  class 
of  chickens,  the  Orpington,  is  very  popular  in  this 
country.  There  are  three  important  varieties,  the  Buff, 
the  White,  and  the  Black,  all  having  single  combs. 
They  have  a  bluish-colored  shank  and  the  skin  is  light 
colored  instead  of  being  yellow  as  is  that  of  the  American 
class.  The  Orpingtons  compare  very  favorably  with 
the  best  American  breeds  in  size  and  egg  production. 

The  other  classes  of  chickens  will  not  be  discussed 
here  as  they  are  of  less  importance  than  those  men- 
tioned. 

Review  Exercises 

1.  How  are  breeds  distinguished? 

2.  Name  the  American  breeds  and  give  some  of  their  character- 
istics. 

3.  Give  the  advantages  of  a  dual-purpose  breed. 

4.  How  does  the  Rhode  Island  Red  differ  from  the  Plymouth 
Rock.? 

5.  List  all  the  varieties  of  chickens  which  you  have  seen. 

6.  Describe  the  different  types  of  combs  which  you  have  seen. 

7.  What  breeds  have  rose  combs  only.? 

8.  What  common  breeds  have  single  combs  only .? 

9.  How  many  different  shades  of  color  do  you  find  on  a  Rhode 
Island  Red  male.? 

10.  Describe  the  Orpington. 

11.  Give  your  reasons  for  keeping  the  breed  or  breeds  which  are 
kept  on  your  farm  at  the  present  time.  Do  you  think  some 
other  breed  might  be  better.?     Why? 


Ill 

THE   BABCOCK  TEST 

Home  Work 

A  Babcock  tester  is  necessary  to  complete  the  records 
called  for  in  connection  with  this  study.  It  will  not  be 
necessary  for  each  pupil  to  have  a  tester  but  the  school 
should  possess  one.  If  there  is  none  in  the  school, 
perhaps  one  may  be  borrowed  from  someone  near  the 
school.  If  one  is  not  available,  take  the  samples  to 
the  nearest  creamery  to  be  tested. 

Perhaps  each  boy  has  a  favorite  among  the  cows 
owned  by  his  father.  The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to 
learn  just  what  that  cow  is  producing  for  the  family. 
If  time  permits,  a  comparison  between  this  cow  and 
other  cows  may  be  made.  Each  pupil  should  learn  to 
use  the  Babcock  test. 

Weigh  the  milk  each  morning  and  evening  at  milking 
time  and  record  the  weights.  Do  the  cows  give  more 
milk  in  the  evening  or  morning.?  Why.?  Is  the  test 
the  same  at  both  milkings.? 

Mix  the  milk  each  time  by  pouring  from  one  pail  to 
another,  then  take  a  small  sample  of  the  milk  and  place 
in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle.  Label  each  bottle  with  the 
date  and  time  of  milking,  and  amount  of  milk,  thus: — 

1 86 


THE   BABCOCK  TEST  187 

March  20,  A.  M.;  22  lb.  How  much  time  is  required 
for  this  work  on  each  occasion  ? 

Test  each  day's  sample  with  the  Babcock  test.  Does 
the  test  of  the  milk  vary  from  day  to  day?  Is  the 
milk  which  is  most  yellow  always  the  richest  in  fat  ? 

At  the  end  of  the  week,  tabulate  the  results  in  the 
following  form: 


Cow 

Date 

A.M. 
P.M. 

P.M. 

Pupii.'.s  Name 
Lb.  Milk. 

%Fat 

Lb.  Fat 

Does  the  cow  with  the  largest  udder  produce  the 
largest  amount  of  milk.?  What  is  the  total  amount 
of  butter  fat  produced  by  all  the  cows  on  your  farm 
in  one  day.? 

What  is  the  value  at  current  prices  of  the  butter  fat 
produced  by  the  cow  you  tested  for  one  week.? 

What  is  the  average  test .?  (The  average  of  the  per- 
centages will  not  give  the  average  test  of  the  milk. 
Why.?) 

How  much  butter  will  she  produce  in  a  week? 
(Multiply  the  amount  of  fat  by  1^5  to  get  the  amount 
of  butter.) 

Suggested  supplementary  home  work: 

(a)  Take  a  sample  from  each  of  the  cows  at  home 
for  one  day;  make  a  test  of  each  sample.     Compare 


i88  FARM   PROJECTS 

the  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  produced  by 
various  cows. 

(b)  Weigh  the  milk  from  each  cow  for  one  day  and 
compare  the  amounts  of  butter  fat  produced  and  suggest 
reasons  for  this  variation.  What  is  the  length  of  time 
since  each  cow  freshened  .f'  Does  the  length  of  this 
period  seem  to  have  any  effect  upon  the  percentage  of 
fat  in  the  milk.? 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

What  Is  the  Babcock  Test? — The  Babcock  test  is  a 
test  designed  to  determine  the  amount  of  butter  fat  in 
milk  without  having  to  go  through  the  process  of  churn- 
ing all  the  milk  and  weighing  the  butter.  Milk  which 
is  sold  to  the  creamery  is  usually  bought  on  the  basis 
of  the  amount  of  butter  fat  in  it.  Thus  the  Babcock 
test  has  come  into  common  usage  for  the  purpose  of 
testing  milk. 

Sampling. — The  fat  content  of  a  cow's  milk  varies 
from  milking  to  milking  and  it  is  necessary  in  order  to 
get  an  average  test  to  test  a  number  of  milkings.  A 
mixed  sample  may  be  made  by  placing  a  sample  of  each 
of  a  number  of  milkings  in  a  pint  Mason  jar.  The 
sample  taken  may  be  small,  but  should  be  proportionate 
to  the  amount  of  milk  given.  Thus,  if  the  cow  gives 
20  lb.  of  milk  in  the  morning  and  30  lb.  of  milk  in  the 
evening,  the  sample  taken  in  the  evening  should  be  one 
and  one-half  times  as  large  as  that  taken  in  the  morning; 
two  tablespoonfuls  to  each  10  lb.  of  milk  is  enough. 


THE   BABCOCK  TEST  189 

A  mixed  sample  made  up  of  several  individual  samples 
is  called  a  "composite"  sample. 

How  Much  Should  Cows  Produce? — The  Babcock 
test  is  used  in  establishing  official  records  of  dairy  cows 
and  these  records  are  reported  by  the  breed  associations. 
The  world's  record  for  one  year's  butter  fat  production 
is  held  by  a  registered  pure-bred  Holstein-Friesian, 
Bella  Pontiac.  The  milk  she  produced  in  one  year  was 
tested  by  the  Babcock  test  and  found  to  contain  1,259 
lb.  of  butter  fat.  The  importance  of  this  test  in  build- 
ing up  the  dairy  industry  can  scarcely  be  overestimated. 
By  testing  each  cow's  milk  the  farmer  can  learn  which 
of  his  cows  is  doing  the  best  work  for  him.  He  can 
find  the  cow  or  cows  which  are  loafing  and  not  paying 
for  their  board  and  by  selling  these  cows  and  keeping 
the  best  ones  for  breeding  purposes  a  farmer  can  breed 
up  his  herd  to  a  high  standard  of  production.  A  good 
standard  to  set  up  for  cows  in  the  dairy  herd  is  12,000 
lb.  of  milk  each  year.  There  are  many  herds  which 
reach  this  standard. 

Testing  Whole  Milk 

University  oj  Illinois  Experiment  Station, 
Circular  Number  lyzj. 

"The  sample  to  be  tested  should  be  at  a  temperature 
of  55°  to  65°  F.  Mix  the  milk  thoroughly  by  pouring 
it  a  number  of  times  back  and  forth  from  the  sample 
bottles  into  a  clean  vessel,  taking  care  that  all  curd  or 


190 


FARM   PROJECTS 


/ 


17  6c 


Correct  Method  of 
/^eadinff  on  Who/e 
Mi/k  Bott/es. 
Bead  From  A  to  B. 


D 


undistributed  lumps  of  cream  are  broken  down.  Im- 
mediately after  mixing,  draw  the  milk  up  above  the 
mark  on  the  pipette  and  hold  it  there  by  quickly  placing 

the  forefinger  over 
the  end  of  the  stem; 
release  the  pressure 
of  the  finger  slight- 
ly, allowing  the 
milk  to  run  down  to 
the  mark  (this  is 
easier  to  do  if  the 
finger  is  dry).  Then 
transfer  the  pipette 
of  milk  to  the  test 
bottle,  allowing  the 
milk  to  flow  slowly 
down  the  neck  of 
the  bottle  and  blow- 
ing the  last  drop 
into  the  bottle.  The 
best  results  are  ob- 
tained when  the 
pipette  and  the  test 
bottle  are  held  at  a 
slight  angle  during 
this  transfer. 

"Do  not  lose  any  of  the  milk  sample  in  the  process  of 
mixing,  measuring,  or  transferring,  for  the  Babcock  test  is 
essentially  quantitative  and  any  loss  affects  its  accuracy. 


Fig.  43.  A.  Measuring  pipette;  B.  milk  test 
bottle;  C.  acid  measure;  D.  correct  method 
OF  reading  on  whole  milk  bottles.  Read 
from  a  to  B 


THE   BABCOCK  TEST  191 

"After  transferring  the  milk  to  the  test  bottle,  measure 
out  17.5  c.c.  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid  into  the  small 
glass  cylinder  and  pour  into  the  test  bottle.  The  acid 
should  be  about  the  same  temperature  as  the  milk.  Hold 
the  bottle  in  a  slanting  position  and  rotate  it  slowly  so 
that  the  acid  will  run  down  the  narrow  neck  and  carry 
down  any  milk  adhering  to  it.  After  the  acid  is  added, 
mix  the  milk  and  acid  with  a  rotary  motion,  being  care- 
ful not  to  force  any  of  the  mixture  into  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  Keep  up  the  rotary  motion  until  all  the  curd 
has  been  dissolved  and  the  liquid  is  of  dark  brown  color. 

'*When  the  samples  to  be  tested  have  been  prepared, 
put  the  bottles  in  the  tester,  taking  care  to  place  them 
opposite  each  other  so  that  they  balance.  Turn  the 
crank  the  required  number  of  turns  per  minute  for 
five  minutes;  then,  without  removing,  fill  each  of  the 
bottles  to  its  neck  with  hot  water  and  whirl  them  again 
for  two  minutes.  Add  more  hot  water  to  each  bottle 
until  the  neck  is  filled  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  upper 
limit  of  the  graduation  marks;  then  whirl  the  bottles 
again  for  one  minute. 

"  If  the  foregoing  instructions  have  been  carefully 
followed,  the  neck  of  each  bottle  will  contain  a  column 
of  fat  which  should  be  of  a  clear  yellow  color.  The  test 
is  now  ready  to  read. 

"Reading  the  Test. — The  extremes  of  the  fat  in  the 
neck  of  the  test  bottle  are  the  limits  of  the  reading. 
The  most  accurate  reading  is  made  when  the  temper- 
ature of  the  contents  of  the  bottle  is  130°  F. 


192  FARM   PROJECTS 

"It  will  be  noticed  that  the  scale  on  the  neck  of  the 
test  bottle  has  ten  large  divisions,  and  that  each  of 
these  is  divided  into  five  small  divisions.  Each  of  the 
ten  large  divisions  represents  i  per  cent,  and  each 
small  division,  0.2  per  cent.  If  the  fat  column  covers 
three  of  the  large  spaces  and  three  of  the  small  ones, 
the  reading  is  3.6  per  cent.  This  means  that  there 
are  3.6  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  every  one  hundred 
pounds  of  the  milk  being  tested.  The  use  of  a  pair  of 
dividers  to  measure  the  limits  of  the  fat  column  will  aid 
in  securing  greater  accuracy  in  reading  the  test.'* 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Of  what  benefit  to  the  dairyman  is  the  Babcock  test? 

2.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  sampling  a  cow's  milk  ? 

3.  How  much  time  is  required  to  sample  and  test  the  milk  of 
twenty  cows  each  day?  Use  your  own  record  of  time  in  calcu- 
lating this  answer. 

4.  What  is  the  lowest  test  recorded  by  any  member  of  the 
class?      Describe  the  cow  that  produced  the  milk  testing  so  low. 

5.  What  is  the  highest  test  recorded?     Describe  the  cow. 

6.  What  breeds  seem  to  produce  the  richest  milk?  The  poor- 
est? 

7.  Give  the  steps  in  operating  the  Babcock  test. 

8.  What  precautions  should  be  observed? 

9.  What  is  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  the  fingers? 

10.  If  it  costs  ^120  to  feed  a  cow  for  one  year,  how  much  butter 
fat  at  70  cents  per  pound  must  she  produce  to   pay  for  her  feed? 

11.  Estimate  the  cost  of  feeding  your  best  cow  one  year  using 
current  prices  of  feed.  Does  she  produce  a  profit  over  her  feed  ? 
What  is  the  calf  worth  each  year? 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST  193 

12.  A  cow  gives  27  lb.  of  milk  daily.  The  milk  tests  4.2% 
butter  fat.  How  much  will  the  butter  fat  produced  by  this  cow 
in  one  month  bring  at  62  cents  per  lb.  ? 

13.  The  daily  production  of  John's  cow  is  22  lb.  of  5.2%  milk. 
Henry's  cow  produces  daily  38  lb.  of  3.6%  milk.  What  is  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  butter  produced  by  the  two  cows  in  one 
week .? 

14.  How  much  cream  testing  20%  butter  fat  will  John's  cow 
produce  in  one  day.?     How  much  will  Henry's  cow  produce.? 

15.  How  much  cream  testing  20%  did  Bell  Pontiac  produce  in 
one  year.? 

.  16.  Ten  Holstein  heifers  of  a  herd  owned  by  the  University  of 
Illinois  produced  in  one  year  an  average  of  13,542.2  lb.  of  milk, 
containing  466.14  lb.  of  butter  fat.  What  did  the  milk  test.?  The 
dams  of  these  heifers  averaged  in  one  year  9,533  lb.  of  milk,  con- 
taining 300  lb.  of  butter  fat.  What  was  the  test  of  this  milk.? 
What  is  the  difference  in  a  year's  income  between  the  produce  of  the 
daughters  and  that  of  the  dams  if  the  product  was  sold  at  62  cents 
per  pound  of  butter  fat? 


IV 

THE  SILO 

Home  Work 

The  purpose  of  our  study  of  silos  is  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  different  types  of  silos  and  to  learn 
the  extent  to  which  they  are  used.  Each  member  of 
the  class  should  report  on  the  silos  in  his  immediate 
locality.  By  this  method  facts  may  be  secured  about 
the  whole  school  district.  The  results  may  be  tabu- 
lated according  to  the  following  outline: 


Name  of 
Farmer 

Type  of 
Silo 

Estimated 
Value 

Diameter 

Height 

Remarks 

Good  Points, 

Objections, 

Keeping 

Qualities, 

Etc. 

In  the  second  column,  the  type  of  silo  should  be 
given  upon  the  basis  of  material  used  in  construction 
as  brick,  concrete,  or  wood.  If  the  farmer  has  more 
than  one  silo,  record  his  name  twice  and  describe  each 

194 


THE  SILO  195 

silo.  Under  ''Remarks"  include  any  remarks  that  you 
have  heard  the  farmer  make  about  the  use  of  the  silo. 
Perhaps  it  will  be  possible  to  get  the  opinion  of  the 
farmers  in  the  district  on  the  best  kind  of  silo  for  the 
community.  The  table  may  be  extended  to  include 
other  items  suggested  in  the  questions  such  as  the  acre- 
age of  crops  required  to  fill  the  silo. 
Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  How  many  silos  are  there  In  your  community.? 

2.  What  per  cent  of  the  farms  have  silos? 

3.  What  crops  are  put  into  the  silos  and  to  what  kind  of  live 
stock  is  the  silage  fed  ? 

4.  Obtain  some  opinions  of  farmers  regarding  the  investment 
of  money  in  a  silo.  Do  those  who  have  used  silos  believe  that 
they  are  good  investments? 

5.  Approximately  how  many  acres  of  corn  are  required  to  fill 
a  silo  14'  X  30'?     Calculate  from  the  data  obtained  from  farmers. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Use  of  the  Silo. — Most  boys  and  girls  have  seen 
cabbage  cut  and  packed  into  a  large  jar  to  make  sauer- 
kraut. The  silo  is  the  dairy  cow's  kraut  jar.  Corn 
and  other  crops  are  cut  while  they  are  green  and 
packed  into  the  silo  where  the  finely  cut  material  under- 
goes certain  changes  by  fermentation.  The  silage,  as 
the  feed  is  called  when  it  comes  from  the  silo,  is  a  very 
palatable  feed  and  takes  the  place  of  the  green  feed 
which  the  cows  and  other  live  stock  have  been  eating 
during  the  summer  months.     For  this  reason  silage  is 


196  FARM  PROJECTS 

usually  fed  during  the  winter  months  when  pasture  is 
scarce,  although  it  may  be  fed  in  summer  with  good 
results. 

Advantages  of  the  Silo. — There  is  much  discussion 
among  farmers,  as  you  may  have  already  learned 
through  your  home  observation,  as  to  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  silo  on  the  farm.  The  farmers 
who  are  in  favor  of  the  silo  give  these  reasons  for  their 
opinion: 

1.  The  silo  makes  it  possible  to  have  green  succulent  feed  all 
the  year. 

2.  There  is  less  labor  involved  in  handling  corn  through  the 
silo  than  there  is  in  other  methods  of  harvesting  and  storing. 

3.  The  feed  is  in  the  barn  during  the  winter  when  the  weather 
sometimes  makes  it  impossible  to  use  shock  fodder  that  has  been 
left  in  the  field  or  stacked  out. 

4.  Experiments  have  proved  that  an  acre  of  corn  put  in  the 
silo  and  fed  to  dairy  cows  will  produce  more  milk  than  when 
harvested  and  fed  in  any  other  way. 

5.  Stock  will  eat  a  greater  portion  of  the  corn  when  it  is  fed  in 
the  form  of  silage  than  when  fed  in  any  other  form;  hence,  there 
is  less  waste  through  using  a  silo. 

6.  More  feed  can  be  stored  per  unit  of  space  in  the  silo  than 
in  the  mow. 

7.  Silage  is  an  economical  feed  when  fed  for  beef  production. 

T3rpes  of  Silos. — Most  silos  are  cylindrical.  Many 
different  materials  are  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
various  types  of  silos,  a  common  type  being  the  stave 
or  wood  silo.  In  constructing  this  type  of  silo,  wood 
staves  are  put  together  by  the  tongue  and  groove,  and 


THE   SILO 


197 


then  held  in  place  by  iron  hoops  or  bands,  the  con- 
struction being  very  similar  to  the  making  of  a  barrel. 
Another  common  type  is  the  solid-wall,  concrete  silo, 
the  walls  being  about  six  inches  thick  and  heavily  rein- 
forced with  iron  rods  and  netting.     The  tile  or  block 


Fig.  44.    Students  building  a  concrete  silo 

silo,  made  of  glazed  tile  or  blocks,  has  come  into  common 
usage.  The  block  silo  is  made  of  concrete  blocks  such 
as  are  seen  in  the  construction  of  foundations.  Brick 
silos  are  also  in  use. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  the  best,  and  perhaps 
there  is  no  best  for  all  conditions.  The  peculiarities  of 
local  conditions,  such  as  climate,  should  help  to  deter- 


198 


FARM   PROJECTS 


mine  the  kind  to  build.  Silage  does  not  freeze  as 
readily  in  silos  having  hollow  walls  as  in  those  with 
solid  concrete  walls.  Wood  silos  often  blow  down  or 
burn,  and  if  the  silage  is  too  green  when  it  is  put  in,  the 


Fig.  45.  The  dairy  barn  and  silo  were  built  by  students  attending  Black- 
burn College,  Carlinville,  Illinois,  where  learning  and  earning  go 
hand  in  hand.     Education  should  not  be  separated  from  honest  labor 

wood  staves  may  rot  off  due  to  the  juices  collecting 
in  the  bottom  of  the  silo. 

The  pit  silo,  built  below  the  surface  of  the  ground 
like  a  cistern,  is  in  common  use  in  some  sections.  The 
silage  must  be  lifted  from  it.  It  has  advantages  in  ex- 
tremely cold   climates   and   in  countries  where  wind 


THE   SILO  199 

storms  are  common.  It  costs  less  to  construct  a  pit 
than  to  build  a  silo  of  the  other  type. 

Size  of  Silos. — The  size  of  the  silo  needed  on  the  farm 
varies  with  the  number  of  animals  to  be  fed.  The  silo 
should  be  small  enough  in  diameter  so  that  a  layer  of 
the  silage  may  be  fed  from  the  entire  area  each  day, 
otherwise  the  silage  will  spoil.  A  silo  ten  feet  in  diameter 
and  thirty  feet  high  will  hold  about  fifty  tons  of  silage 
and  will  require  from  four  to  five  acres  of  corn  to  fill  it. 
A  herd  of  twelve  cattle  could  be  fed  from  November 
first  to  June  first  from  this  silo.  A  ton  of  silage  occupies 
approximately  fifty  cubic  feet,  so  the  capacity  of  any 
silo  may  be  figured. 

Filling  the  Silo. — Corn  should  be  put  into  the  silo 
when  the  dent  first  appears  in  the  kernels.  It  should 
be  just  out  of  the  "milk  stage"  because  if  corn  is  too 
dry  when  the  silo  is  filled,  it  is  likely  to  mold.  Water 
is  run  into  the  silo  as  it  is  being  filled  if  the  corn  is 
somewhat  dry.  The  corn  is  cut  in  the  field  by  hand  or 
with  a  binder  and  is  hauled  at  once  to  the  silage  cutter 
where  it  is  cut  or  chopped  very  finely  and  blown  into  the 
silo.  Usually  one  or  two  men  stay  in  the  silo  to  dis- 
tribute and  tramp  the  silage. 

Feeding  Silage. — Silage  may  be  fed  to  any  kind  of 
stock;  however,  it  is  usually  considered  as  a  cattle 
feed.  Dairy  cows  giving  large  quantities  of  milk  will 
consume  from  twenty  to  forty  pounds  of  silage  per  day 
besides  a  grain  and  hay  ration.  Silage  is  an  economical 
roughage  to  feed  to  fattening  cattle.     In  fact,  some  of 


200  FARM   PROJECTS 

the  best  gains  have  been  made  by  feeding  a  ration  of 
corn  silage,  cottonseed  meal,  and  alfalfa  hay.  There 
is  no  definite  ration  which  is  best  for  all  animals  as  the 
needs  of  the  individuals  vary.  It  is  not  possible  to  say 
how  much  silage  should  be  fed  to  a  single  cow  without 
knowing  the  cow.  The  farmer  should  study  his  animals 
and  feed  them  according  to  the  needs  of  the  individual 
rather  than  follow  definite  rules. 


Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  purpose  does  the  silo  serve  on  the  farm? 

2.  At  what  time  of  the  year  is  silage  usually  fed  ?     Why  ? 

3.  What  method  is  used  in  cutting  corn  for  the  silo  in  your 
community? 

4.  Name  the  advantages  of  a  silo. 

5.  How  much  silage  will  be  required  to  feed  a  herd  of  twelve 
dairy  cows  from  the  time  the  pasture  is  gone  in  the  fall  until  pas- 
ture is  ready  in  the  spring? 

6.  To  what  kind  of  live  stock  may  silage  be  fed? 

7.  Distinguish  between  the  different  kinds  of  silos. 

8.  Which  kind  would  you  build  if  you  were  a  farmer?  Give 
your  reasons. 

9.  What  is  a  pit  silo? 

10.  In  which  kind  of  silo  will  silage  freeze  most  easily? 

11.  How  many  tons  of  silage  will  a  silo  12  feet  in  diameter  and 
36  feet  high  contain?  (i  ton  occupies  50  cubic  feet,  i  cubic 
foot  weighs  40  lb.) 

12.  How  much  silage  will  the  largest  silo  in  your  community  hold  ? 

13.  Each  of  two  silos  are  30  ft.  high.  One  has  a  diameter  one 
half  as  great  as  the  other.  What  per  cent  of  the  capacity  of  the 
larger  silo  is  the  capacity  of  the  smaller  one? 


THE   SILO  20I 

14.  What  will  it  cost  to  paint  a  wooden  silo  10  ft.  in  diameter  and 
30  ft.  in  height,  at  75  cents  per  square  yard? 

15.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  concrete  will  be  required  to  build 
a  solid-wall  silo  having  an  inside  diameter  of  12  ft.  and  a  height  of 
36  ft.,  if  the  walls  are  6  in.  thick  ? 


V 

MILK  AND  ITS  CARE 

Home  Work 

Compare  the  milk  of  the  various  cows  on  your  farm 
as  to  color.  Do  the  cows  of  the  same  breed  give  milk 
of  the  same  color?  Did  the  Babcock  test  show  that 
the  yellowest  milk  was  richest  in  butter  fat? 

Set  some  fresh  milk  in  a  warm  place,  preferably  in 
the  kitchen  where  the  temperature  and  humidity  are 
high.  How  long  is  it  before  the  milk  begins  to  taste 
sour?  How  long  before  it  becomes  curded  or  clab- 
bered? Into  another  sample,  put  some  of  the  dirt 
and  litter  of  the  barn — about  a  half  spoonful  in  a  quart 
of  milk  and  compare  the  time  required  for  souring  with 
the  time  required  by  the  clear  fresh  sample.  Set 
another  sample  in  a  cold  place,  the  ice-box  or  out-of- 
doors  if  the  temperature  is  low.  How  long  before  it 
sours  ?  Allow  fresh  milk  to  remain  near  onions,  cabbage, 
rotting  potatoes,  or  other  foods  having  a  strong  odor. 
Does  the  milk  absorb  the  odor  to  such  a  degree  that 
its  flavor  is  affected  ? 

If  you  have  a  separator  on  the  farm,  examine  it  to 
answer  these  questions:  How  many  discs  in  the  bowl? 
Does  the  cream  come  out  above  or  below  the  milk? 

202 


MILK  AND   ITS   CARE  203 

If  the  crank  is  turned  sixty  revolutions  per  minute,  how 
many  revolutions  does  the  bowl  make?  Try  to  sepa- 
rate cold  milk.  What  effect  does  the  temperature 
seem  to  have  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  separator? 
Can  you  suggest  a  reason  for  this  effect?  Try  to 
discover  the  principle  of  separation  of  the  cream  from 
the  skim  milk.  Does  the  cream  go  to  the  center  of  the 
bowl  or  to  the  outside  when  it  revolves  at  great  speed  ? 
Why?  Turn  the  cream  screw  one  turn  to  the  left  and 
note  the  effect  upon  the  amount  of  cream.  Then  turn 
the  screw  to  the  right  and  note  the  effect.  Can  you 
suggest  a  reason  for  this  difference?  Name  all  the 
makes  of  separators  which  you  can  find  advertised 
in  farm  journals.  Cut  pictures  from  the  advertisements 
and  make  up  a  cardboard  page  of  pictures  to  be  used  in 
the  class  at  school.  What  differences  in  the  separators 
do  you  see  in  the  pictures? 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Milk  is  a  food  product  produced  by  mammals  for 
their  young.  Most  milk  contains  more  than  three 
fourths  water.  Milk  from  the  various  animals  contains 
different  proportions  of  fat  and  other  solids.  The 
milk  of  the  whale  is  perhaps  the  richest  in  fat,  contain- 
ing more  than  two  fifths,  about  43  per  cent,  fat,  while 
the  milk  of  the  mare  is  very  low  in  fat,  containing  only 
about  I  per  cent  or  one  one  hundredth.  We  usually 
think  of  milk  as  the  product  of  the  cow  because  cow's 


204  FARM   PROJECTS 

milk  is  used  more  extensively  than  the  milk  of  other 
animals.  The  cow  is  an  animal  that  has  been  bred  for 
milk  production.  Goat's  milk  is  used  in  European 
countries  and  to  some  extent  in  the  United  States,  being 
used  especially  in  the  making  of  cheese. 

Composition  of  Milk. — One  hundred  pounds  of  cow's 
milk  contains  the  following  substances  in  the  proportion 
given : 


Water 

87.2  lb. 

Fat 

3.9  lb. 

Protein 

3.5  lb. 

Sugar 

4.7  lb. 

Ash 

.7  lb. 

100. o  lb. 

The  proteins  include  the  casein  and  albumen  of  the 
milk;  they  form  curd  when  rennet  is  put  into  the  milk. 
The  milk  that  we  drink  curds  when  it  enters  the 
stomach  through  the  action  of  the  juices  of  the  stomach 
upon  the  proteins  of  milk.  Cheese  curd  is  made  up 
of  the  solids  of  milk. 

Butter  Fat. — The  fat  of  the  milk,  called  butter  fat, 
is  the  fat  from  which  butter  is  made.  Good  butter 
contains  about  83  per  cent  of  pure  butter  fat.  Ordi- 
nary cream  should  contain  about  20  per  cent  of  fat, 
while  double  cream,  or  whipping  cream,  should  contain 
from  35  per  cent  to  40  per  cent  butter  fat.  If  you  look 
at  milk  through  a  high-power  microscope  you  can  see 
the  fat  globules.     Fat  appears  in  tiny  globules  or  balls 


MILK  AND  ITS   CARE  205 

so  small  that  millions  of  them  could  be  placed  side  by 
side  on  the  face  of  a  silver  dime.  When  cream  is  stirred 
rapidly,  as  in  churning,  these  globules  of  fat  unite  to 
make  larger  grains  of  fat  and  finally  butter  is  formed. 
The  size  of  the  fat  globules  varies.  Jersey  milk  con- 
tains larger  globules  than  Holstein  milk.  For  this 
reason,  cream  will  usually  rise  more  quickly  on  Jersey 
milk  than  on  Holstein  milk. 

Separating  Milk. — The  fat  is  lighter  than  the  water 
and  other  parts  of  the  milk,  and  will  come  to  the  top 
when  the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand.  When  the  thick 
layer  on  the  milk  is  skimmed  off,  the  product  is  called 
cream.  The  separator  separates  the  fat  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  milk  by  a  whirling  motion.  This  can  be 
illustrated  by  swinging  a  bucket  of  water  over  the  head. 
The  water  remains  in  the  bucket  and  if  a  mixture  of 
liquids  were  placed  in  the  pail,  the  heaviest  would  go  to 
the  bottom  or  outside.  In  the  whirling  separator 
bowl,  the  milk  goes  to  the  outside  and  the  cream,  being 
lighter,  comes  to  the  middle  of  the  bowl  and  by  means 
of  discs  the  cream  is  separated  from  the  milk. 

The  cream  separator  is  an  important  device  to  the 
farmer  as  he  may  separate  the  milk  while  it  is  fresh  and 
warm,  keeping  the  cream  for  the  market,  and  feeding 
the  skim  milk  to  calves,  pigs,  or  chickens.  Skim  milk 
is  an  excellent  feed  for  growth  production  and  when  fed 
to  hens  is  a  good  egg  producer.  The  cream  separator 
has  made  it  possible  for  dairymen  to  sell  fresh  cream 
of  almost  any  desired  degree  of  richness  to  the  consumer. 


2o6  FARM   PROJECTS 

If  a  house-wife  wishes  fresh  cream  which  contains  40 
per  cent  fat,  she  may  get  it,  and  if  she  wishes  cream 
containing  20  per  cent  fat,  she  may  get  that. 

How  Milk  Sours. — Every  boy  and  girl  knows  sour 
milk  and  its  qualities.  It  is  important  to  know  some 
of  the  conditions  which  cause  milk  to  sour.  The  sour- 
ing is  brought  about  by  the  presence  of  little  bacteria 
sometimes  called  germs,  though  not  correctly.  They 
are  microscopic  and  can  never  be  seen  with  the  naked 
eye.  These  little  bacteria  are  not  little  animals, 
as  is  sometimes  thought,  but  are  plants  and  repro- 
duce at  such  a  rapid  rate  that  within  a  very  short 
time  after  they  begin  growth,  millions  of  them  are 
contained  in  a  single  spoonful  of  milk.  These  bacteria 
cause  an  acid  to  form  in  the  milk  which  causes  it  to 
taste  sour  and  to  curd,  causing  the  condition  which  we 
call  "clabber."  Put  a  little  vinegar  in  a  glass  of  milk 
and  note  the  results. 

Milk  will  not  sour  unless  bacteria  are  present  and  if 
we  can  do  anything  to  check  the  growth  of  bacteria 
we  can  check  the  souring  of  the  milk.  Milk  sours 
rapidly  under  the  following  conditions: 

1.  In  a  warm  temperature.  Bacteria  grow  rapidly  in  warm 
temperatures,  thus  causing  the  milk  to  sour  more  quickly. 

2.  In  the  presence  of  dirt.  The  bacteria  are  taken  into  the 
fresh  milk  by  dust  particles  and  dirt  from  the  cow's  body,  the 
milker's  clothing,  or  other  sources. 

Rules  for  preventing  the  souring  of  milk  or  at  least 
for  retarding  the  souring  process  may  be  based  upon  a 


MILK  AND  ITS  CARE  207 

knowledge  of  the  above-mentioned  facts  and   briefly- 
stated  as  follows: 

1.  Keep  all  the  surroundings  as  clean  as  possible.  The  cow, 
the  milker,  and  the  milk  utensils  should  be  clean.  The  cow's 
udder  should  be  washed  and  dried  before  milking. 

2.  Milk  with  dry  hands;  otherwise,  dirty  water  and  milk  will 
drop  from  the  hands  into  the  milk  pail. 

3.  Wash  the  milk  pails  in  boiling  water  and  allow  them  to 
remain  in  the  strong  sunlight  as  much  as  possible. 

4.  Cool  the  milk  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  milked  to  check 
the  growth  of  bacteria.  The  bacteria  do  not  grow  rapidly  at  tem- 
peratures as  low  as  40  to  50  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

5.  Keep  the  milk  in  a  cool,  clean  place. 

6.  If  a  cream  separator  is  used,  wash  it  thoroughly  after  each 
separation. 

7.  Utensils  which  have  been  used  to  keep  milk  for  use  on  the 
table  should  be  washed  in  hot  water  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
sun  before  they  are  used  again.  In  places  where  certified  milk  is 
bottled,  the  utensils  are  sterilized  with  steam  which  insures  that 
all  bacteria  are  killed  before  the  fresh  milk  is  put  into  the  bottles. 

Milk  and  Diseases. — Frequently  epidemics  such  as 
the  spread  of  typhoid  fever  are  caused  by  milk.  The 
bacteria  which  cause  diseases  of  this  kind  live  in  milk 
when  once  they  are  started.  The  milk  may  contain 
tuberculosis  bacteria  which  grow  and  continue  to  grow 
in  the  body  after  the  milk  is  used.  It  is  perhaps  true 
that  many  diseases  are  spread  by  the  use  of  impure 
milk. 

Pasteurized  Milk. — Sometimes  milk  labeled  "pas- 
teurized" is  sold  on  the  market  which  means  that  the 
milk  has   been  heated   in  order  to   kill   the  bacteria 


2o8  FARM   PROJECTS 

present.  By  pasteurizing  milk  in  the  large  cities,  the 
death  rate  among  children  has  been  reduced  because 
the  disease  germs  or  bacteria  present  in  the  milk  are 
killed  by  heating  the  milk  to  a  high  temperature. 

Evaporated  Milk. — Since  milk  spoils  very  quickly, 
there  is  much  loss  due  to  souring  and  frequently  much 
suffering  from  want  of  milk  when  delivery  is  held  up, 
as  in  the  case  of  strikes  in  the  large  cities.  However, 
one  can  purchase  canned  milk  which  is  milk  from  which 
a  large  proportion  of  the  water  has  been  removed.  The 
water  is  evaporated  from  the  milk  in  large  steam  tanks 
heated  with  steam  pipes.  The  milk  is  then  placed  in 
cans  and  the  cans  are  sealed  and  are  heated  to  kill  all 
bacteria.  Condensed  milk  is  thicker  than  evaporated 
milk  and  is  usually  sweetened  with  a  sugar  syrup  to 
aid  in  preservation. 

The  trade  in  evaporated  and  condensed  milk  is 
extensive,  in  1919  the  production  in  the  United  States 
being  2,000,000,000  pounds  of  canned  milk.  Much  of 
this  milk  would  have  spoiled  and  would  have  been 
useless  so  far  as  family  use  was  concerned  if  it  had 
not  been  preserved  in  this  way.  Evaporated  milk  is 
convenient  to  use  and  serves  many  purposes  in  instances 
where  fresh  milk  cannot  be  obtained,  because  it  keeps 
well  and  can  be  shipped  to  distant  points. 

Products  of  Milk. — While  milk  itself  is  one  of  the 
most  complete  and  desirable  foods,  there  are  many 
products  made  from  milk  which  should  be  considered. 
The  most  commonly  used  product  is  butter.     Butter 


MILK  AND  ITS   CARE  209 

should  contain  eighty-three  pounds  of  pure  butter  fat 
in  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  butter,  besides  the  milk 
curd,  water,  and  salt.  Enough  butter  is  manufactured 
in  the  United  States  each  year  to  supply  each  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  the  country  with  one  hundred 
pounds  of  butter.  Much  is  exported  to  other  countries. 
Cheese  is  an  important  product,  the  most  important 
kinds  of  cheese  made  in  the  United  States  being  Amer- 
ican Cheddar,  Swiss,  Brick,  and  Limburger.  Cheese 
is  made  from  whole  milk  and  contains  approximately  one 
third  water,  one  third  fat,  and  one  third  curd  and  ash, 
the  proportion  varying  in  the  different  kinds  of  cheese. 

Other  products — buttermilk,  skim  milk,  whey,  and 
drinks  made  from  these  are  to  be  found  on  the  market. 
Buttermilk  and  skim  milk  are  excellent  feeds  for  grow- 
ing hogs  and  chickens  and  are  widely  used  as  by- 
products of  the  dairy  industry. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  dlfFerences  have  you  observed  in  cows'  milk? 

2.  Outhne  the  methods  used  in  caring  for  milk  on  your  farm. 

3.  Describe  the  devices  used  for  cooling  milk  in  your  com- 
munity. 

4.  What  disposition  is  made  of  the  milk  from  your  farm  ? 

5.  What  will  2,000  lb.  of  milk  be  worth  at  14  cents  per  quart, 
allowing  2.18  lb.  per  quart.''  How  long  will  it  take  the  best  cow 
on  your  farm  to  produce  this  amount  of  milk  at  her  present  rate  of 
production.'* 

6.  What  would  the  milk  mentioned  above  be  worth  at  64  cents 
per  pound  for  the  butter  fat  it  contains  if  it  tested  4.3  /of 


2IO  FARM   PROJECTS 

7.  Which  will  contain  the  larger  amount  of  butter  fat,  30  lb.  of 
Jersey  milk,  testing  5.3%  or  45   lb.  of  Holstein  milk  containing 

3.4%? 

8.  How  much  butter  containing  83%  fat  can  be  made  from  120 
lb.  of  butter  fat? 

9.  How  much  milk  testing  4%  would  be  required  to  produce 
the  above  amount  of  butter  fat.f* 

10.  How  much  cream  testing  20%  fat  could  be  made  from  the 
amount  of  milk  required  in  the  above  instance.'' 

11.  Allow  milk  to  remain  uncovered  in  a  closed  room  or  cellar 
where  onions  are  kept.    What  happens. >* 

12.  How  much  milk  is  produced  daily  on  the  farms  represented 
in  the  class.?  If  all  the  milk  were  sold  on  the  basis  of  the  butter 
fat  it  contained,  what  would  be  its  value  when  butter  fat  is  worth 
67  cents  per  pound .? 

13.  What  facts  have  you  learned  in  this  lesson  that  you  can 
apply  immediately.?    Why.? 

14.  Under  what  conditions  will  the  purchase  of  a  cream  separa- 
tor be  economical.? 

15.  Will  it  pay  better  to  sell  the  milk  at  ^3.40  per  hundred 
pounds  or  at  70  cents  per  pound  for  the  butter  fat  if  the  milk  tests 
3.8%  fat,  thus  saving  the  skim  milk  for  house  use  and  for  feed .? 


VI 

FEEDING  ANIMALS 

Home  Work 

In  this  study,  you  should  consider  some  of  the  common 
methods  used  in  feeding  animals  in  your  community. 

1.  List  the  purposes  for  which  animals  are  fed,  such  as  to  do 
work,  to  produce  milk,  meat,  etc.  Do  farmers  give  the  same 
kind  of  feed  for  each  purpose? 

2.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  amount  of  pasture  required 
for  each  animal  and  estimate  the  value  of  pasture  land. 

3.  If  you  are  feeding  hogs,  place  some  timothy,  clover,  and  al- 
falfa hay  in  the  feed  lot  at  different  times.  Note  which  hay  is  eaten 
eagerly  by  the  hogs.  Does  this  suggest  means  of  improving  the 
feeding  of  hogs.? 

4.  Many  farmers  feed  corn  as  the  chief  grain  for  horses.  Weigh 
the  corn  and  other  grain  required  for  each  horse  for  a  few  days 
and  calculate  the  grain  required  for  a  year.  Make  a  similar  cal- 
culation for  roughage  required. 

5.  Compare  the  amount  of  feed  required  by  milk  cows  and  by 
work  horses. 

6.  Do  poultry  eat  as  much  feed  per  hundred  pounds  of  live 
weight  as  other  live  stock .?  Weigh  the  amount  of  feed  given  to  the 
flock  and  estimate  the  weight  of  the  flock.  In  this  way  tind  the 
amount  of  feed  eaten  for  every  100  pounds  of  live  weight. 

7.  Compare  the  horses  on  diflTerent  farms.  Are  they  all  in  good 
condition.''      What  causes  such  differences  as  you    may   notice? 

211 


212  FARM   PROJECTS 

Sometimes  we  can  find  horses  whose  coats  shine,  while  others  have 
rough  coats.  If  you  can  find  such  horses,  try  to  learn  the  differ- 
ence in  the  feed  which  is  supplied. 

Estimate  the  total  amount  of  the  different  feeds  used 
on  your  farm  in  a  year.  Your  father  can  help  you  to 
make  a  close  estimate.  When  each  pupil  has  made 
this  estimate,  the  results  should  be  tabulated  as  follows: 


Kind  of  Feed  Amolnt  Fed 


Approximate  Valle 


Total  number  of  farms 

Total  different  kinds  of  feeds 

Total  amount  fed  on  all  farms. 
Total  approximate  value 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

The  Animal  as  a  Factory. — As  we  study  domestic 
animals,  we  will  think  of  each  animal  as  a  factory.  We 
may  illustrate  what  we  mean  by  using  as  an  example,  a 
plow  factory.  The  plow  factory  must  have  plenty  of 
room,  plenty  of  machinery,  and  raw  material  enough 
to  supply  the  workroom  before  it  can  turn  out  plows. 
If  the  factory  is  to  make  plows,  it  must  first  of  all  install 
efficient  machinery;  and,  of  course,  the  more  room  it 
has,  and  the  better  the  building,  the  greater  capacity  there 


FEEDING  ANIMALS  213 

will  be  for  work.  After  the  machinery  is  installed,  it 
must  then  look  to  the  mines  for  coal  and  iron  and  to 
the  forest  for  wood  from  which  to  manufacture  its 
finished  product.  Important  changes  go  on  within  the 
manufacturing  room  and  when  the  finished  plow  comes 
out,  it  does  not  resemble  to  any  great  degree  the  coal, 
the  iron,  or  the  wood,  all  of  which  were  used  in  making 
it.  Just  so,  the  animal  must  obtain  much  raw  material 
and  work  it  over  into  products  which  do  not  resemble 
the  raw  material  used.  For  instance,  the  cow  takes 
raw  material  in  the  form  of  food  into  the  digestive 
apparatus,  works  it  over,  sends  it  to  the  udder,  which 
we  may  call  the  finishing  room,  and  there  manufactures 
milk  and  turns  it  out  as  a  finished  product.  With  this 
illustration  in  mind,  we  can  better  appreciate  the 
necessity  of  taking  many  factors  into  consideration  if 
we  are  to  study  properly  the  individual  animal. 

Form  and  Purpose. — First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  individual  animal  be  built  for  specific  purposes, 
that  is  to  say,  the  dairy  cow  should  be  built  for  the 
production  of  milk,  while  the  beef  animal  should  be 
entirely  difi^erent  in  form  because  it  is  not  the  specific 
purpose  of  this  animal  to  produce  milk,  but  to  produce 
meat.  The  race  horse  is  quite  different  in  form  from 
the  heavy  draft  horse.  This  is  necessary  because  the 
work  done  by  the  two  horses  is  quite  different. 

We  will  suppose  that  each  pupil  in  the  class  takes 
for  his  problem  the  management  of  one  of  these  animals 
or  factories  we  have  talked  about.     It  is  evident  that 


214 


FARM   PROJECTS 


FEEDING  ANIMALS  215 

he  should  choose  a  factory  that  is  well  built  and  is 
shaped  for  its  particular  purpose. 

Capacity. — The  next  factor  which  must  be  considered 
is  that  of  capacity.  This  is  a  factor  which  makes  for 
milk  production.  If  the  cow  has  not  the  capacity  for 
large  consumption  of  food,  she  will  fail  to  turn  out 
enough  milk  to  make  her  a  profitable  factory.  Capac- 
ity for  food  consumption  is  generally  indicated  in  the 
animal  by  the  open  face,  broad  muzzle,  or  mouth,  and 
especially  by  her  large  barrel  capacity,  the  barrel  being 
that  part  between  the  front  and  rear  quarters.  It  is 
evident,  then,  that  in  order  to  get  the  best  results,  each 
boy  must  select  an  animal  which  has  a  capacity  great 
enough  to  consume  a  large  quantity  of  food. 

Quality. — One  other  fact  should  be  noted:  ability 
to  consume  food  is  not  always  indicated  by  size.  Thus 
the  engine  does  not  necessarily  work  most  efficiently 
and  most  economically  because  it  is  large,  for  a  smaller 
engine  may  consume  less  fuel  yet  work  with  greater 
efficiency  than  the  large  one.  Quality  is  another  charac- 
teristic which  must  be  considered.  The  automobile 
engine  is  smaller  but  runs  much  faster  and  more 
smoothly  than  the  tractor  because  it  is  of  better  quality. 

Production. — To  continue  our  illustrations,  the  dairy 
cow  might  be  built  for  dairy  purposes  and  might  have 
a  large  capacity  for  food  consumption  and  yet  be  so 
limited  in  her  udder  capacity  that  the  maximum  milk 
production  would  not  be  sufficient  to  make  her  profit- 
able.    This  last  factor  we  may  call  capacity  for  pro- 


2i6  FARM   PROJECTS 

duction  and  it  is  best  indicated  by  actual  test.  The 
only  real  test  for  speed  in  a  race  horse  is  the  time 
which  it  takes  him  to  cover  a  given  distance;  in  the 
same  way,  the  only  real  test  for  the  capacity  of  the 
dairy  cow  is  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter  fat  which 
she  actually  produces,  which  may  be  determined  by  the 
Babcock  test,  and  scales. 

The  Raw  Material  Needed. — The  man  who  manu- 
factures musical  instruments  must  select  with  great 
care  the  wood  which  goes  into  the  finished  product, 
because  the  value  of  the  instruments  depends  largely 
upon  the  kind  of  wood  used.  He  would  not  choose  the 
same  raw  material  as  does  the  man  who  manufactures 
plows.  Thus  the  man  who  feeds  animals  must  con- 
sider the  product  which  he  wishes  to  obtain.  If  milk  is 
to  be  the  finished  product,  he  should  use  one  kind  of 
feed;  if  increased  fat  is  the  finished  product  looked  for, 
he  will  use  a  diff^erent  kind  of  feed.  Thus  corn  is  a 
good  fattening  feed,  while  alfalfa,  silage,  and  bran  are 
better  milk-producing  feeds. 

Food  Nutrients. — All  feeds  contain  the  following  five 
classes  of  nutrients:  protein,  carbohydrates  or  starchy 
materials,  fat,  water,  and  mineral  substances.  All 
these  are  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  animal  life. 
Milk  and  eggs  contain  a  large  percentage  of  protein; 
consequently,  in  order  to  get  a  large  production  of  milk 
and  eggs,  it  is  necessary  to  feed  materials  that  contain 
a  large  amount  of  protein.  Protein  also  produces 
growth  in  the  animal  and  repairs  tissues.     For  this 


FEEDING  ANIMALS  217 

reason  growing  pigs  and  growing  calves  should  be  given 
large  quantities  of  skim  milk  or  some  similar  food. 

Narrow  and  Wide  Rations. — A  ration  is  the  amount 
of  feed  an  animal  eats  in  a  day.     The  term  narrow 


Cuuriiiv  ij  AnimiL  Ilui'.aitdr^  Dcparlmcnt,  Unlici^iiy  vj  LUiu^is. 

Fig.  47.    Typical  shorthorn  heiffr.    A  good  example  of  an  animal  factory 


FOR  turning   feed   INTO  MEAT 


means  that  the  proportion  of  protein  to  starchy  mate- 
rial is  close  or  narrow,  while  wide  means  that  the 
proportion  is  greater.  Every  food  that  contains  a 
proportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  of  less  than 
1:5  is  called  narrow.  If  the  proportion  is  more  than 
1:7  it  is  called  wide.     Since  corn  has  about  one  part 


2i8  FARM   PROJECTS 

digestible  protein  to  ten  parts  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates we  say  that  corn  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
i:io.  This  means  that  corn  is  a  rather  wide  ration 
and  is  best  used  as  a  fattening  feed,  rather  than  for  the 
production  of  milk  and  eggs.  Some  common  feeds 
with  their  nutritive  ratios  are  as  follows:  corn,  i:io; 
wheat  bran,  1:4;  oats,  1:6;  wheat,  1:8;  oil  meal,  1:2; 
tankage,  2:1;  alfalfa,  1:4;  timothy  hay,  1:16;  oat 
straw,  1 :  28. 

The  Balanced  Ration. — We  can  now  consider  what 
is  meant  by  a  balanced  ration.  It  means  the  amount 
of  food  material  which  is  best  suited  to  an  animal's 
needs  for  one  day.  If  the  cow  must  produce  a  large 
quantity  of  milk  besides  keeping  up  her  body,  she 
will  need  more  food  and  different  food  than  if  she  did 
not  have  to  produce  milk.  Hens  laying  eggs  do  not 
need  the  same  kinds  of  feed  which  they  would  require 
to  produce  fat. 

Necessity  of  a  Balanced  Ration. — The  wise  feeder  will 
feed  raw  material  which  has  the  constituents  that  are 
contained  in  the  finished  product.  Corn  has  a  high 
percentage  of  starch  which  is  fattening  and  should  be 
fed  to  animals  when  a  large  amount  of  fat  is  desirable. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  feed  corn  alone  for  egg  production 
because  it  does  not  contain  enough  of  the  protein  which 
is  needed  for  eggs.  Pigs  will  not  grow  well  on  corn 
alone,  because  corn  does  not  contain  bone  material 
and  growth  material  in  large  quantity.  In  an  experi- 
ment carried  on  with  pigs,  one  lot  was  fed  on  corn 


FEEDING  ANIMALS 


219 


alone  after  weaning  time  and  another  was  fed  on  corn 
and  alfalfa.  The  pigs  in  the  latter  lot  each  "dressed 
out"  one  hundred  ten  pounds  more  than  the  pigs  in 
the  other  lot.     The  bones  of  those  fed  on  corn  alone 


Fig.  48.    A  two-year  Percheron  filly.    A  good  factory  for  turning  raw 

FEED   INTO   POWER 


were  very  weak,  not  half  so  strong  as  the  bones  of  the 
pigs  fed  on  corn  and  alfalfa.  Many  illustrations  of  this 
kind  can  be  found. 

A  plow  factory  must  have  steel,  wood,  and  coal,  to 
make  plows.  No  one  thinks  of  making  plows  from 
other  kinds  of  materials;    still  it  is  not  an  uncommon 


220  FARM   PROJECTS 

experience  to  find  farmers  trying  to  produce  milk  by 
feeding  timothy  hay  and  corn,  neither  of  which  con- 
tain a  high  per  cent  of  milk-producing  food  material. 
Some  typical  rations  for  animals  are  given  below: 

No.  I.    Ration  for  cow  giving  five  gallons  of  milk  daily: 
Alfalfa  lo  lb.  -| 

Silage  315  lb.  1  TVT      .  .  .         , 

^  J      ,  1  n  iL    f  Nutritive  ratio  1:6. c 

Lorn  and  cob  meal  8  lb.  I 

Linseed  meal  2  lb.  ^ 

No.  2.    Ration  for  1,500  lb.  horse  doing  work: 
Timothy  hay  20  lb.  ] 

Corn  9  lb.  }■  Nutritive  ratio  1:9.8 

Linseed  meal  i  lb.  J 

No.  3.    Ration  for  200  lb.  hogs: 

Corn  7  lb.  1  T^T 

rr     ,  ,,     >  JNutritive  ratio  1 :9 

1  ankage  .25  lb.  J 

or 

Corn  7  lb.  1  ^. 

.,rir  II     rJ^utntive  ratio  1:9 

Alfalfa  I  lb.  J  ^ 

No.  4.    Ration  for  1,000  lb.  steer: 

Corn  15  lb.  ] 

Linseed  meal  3  lb.  j*  Nutritive  ratio  1:6.2 

Alfalfa  4  lb.  J 

No.  5.    Ration  for  fattening  lambs  weighing  75  lb. 
Shelled  corn  I  lb.  "1 

Clover  hay  1.5     }"  Nutritive  ratio  i : 6.5 

Linseed  meal  .15 


FEEDING  ANIMALS  221 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Show  in  what  respects  the  animal  is  like  a  factory. 

2.  How  does  the  dairy  cow  differ  from  the  beef  cow  in  form  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  "capacity  for  consumption"? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "raw  materials"? 

5.  Explain  "narrow"  and  "wide"  rations.     Give  examples  of 
each. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "balanced  ration"? 

7.  State  the  facts  and  principles  learned  from  the  experiment 
quoted. 

8.  Name  feeds  which  are  good  for  growth;    for  fattening. 

9.  Compare   the   rations   indicated   in   this   chapter  with   the 
rations  fed  on  your  farm. 

10.  Explain  this  statement  made  in  the  text:  "The  wise  feeder 
will  feed  raw  material  which  has  the  constituents  that  are  con- 
tained in  the  finished  product."     Give  examples  of  such  materials. 


VII 
HOW  TO  TELL  THE  AGE  OF  ANIMALS 

Home  Work 

Observations. — The  home  study  should  include  a 
close  observation  of  the  habits  of  the  animals  on  the 
farm  and  of  the  anatomy  of  their  mouths.  Look  into 
the  mouths  of  the  horse  and  cow  and  try  to  determine 
the  number  of  teeth  which  each  has.  Would  you 
expect  the  horse  and  cow  to  differ  in  the  manner  of 
eating  grass.?  Why?  Examine  the  mouth  of  the 
sheep.  Is  it  like  the  horse's  mouth,  or  the  cow's 
mouth.?  Observe  them  as  they  eat  to  find  out  which 
animal  picks  the  grass  most  closely.?  Can  you  suggest 
a  reason  for  this  difference.?  Observe  old  and  young 
animals  together  and  list  the  earmarks  which  distin- 
guish at  once  the  old  horse,  the  old  cow,  and  the  old 
dog.  Can  you  tell  the  approximate  age  of  animals  by 
their  appearance.?  A  way  of  testing  your  ability  is 
to  estimate  the  age  of  animals  on  your  farm,  or  on 
some  other  farm,  then  to  ask  someone  who  knows  to 
tell  you  the  correct  ages.  Which  one  in  the  class  can 
make  the  most  accurate  estimates  or  guesses.? 

The  Horse's  Mouth. — Ask  your  father  to  help  you 
to  examine  the  mouths  of  the  horses  on  your  farm. 


HOW  TO  TELL  THE  AGE  OF  ANIMALS    223 

Note  all  the  differences  you  can  observe.  List  each 
horse  that  you  observe,  giving  the  age,  the  condition 
of  the  teeth,  and  other  earmarks  as  follows: 


Name  and  Color 
OF  Horse 

Age 

Condition  of 
Teeth 

Other  Earmarks  Showing  Age 

John,  Bay 

4  years 

Corner  teeth 
just  appearing 

Lively,  thrifty,  unblemished 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Indications  of  Age. — Some  of  our  farm  animals,  such 
as  beef  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep,  are  marketed  before 
they  are  two  years  old.  Of  course,  many  of  these 
animals  are  kept  for  breeding  purposes,  but  the  average 
life  is  very  short  when  the  total  number  is  considered. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  tell  the  age  of  these  animals,  because 
the  size  and  general  appearance  usually  indicate  the 
age.  Any  one  of  the  class  can  tell  whether  a  steer  is 
a  yearling  or  a  two-year-old  by  the  general  development, 
but  the  age  of  such  animals  can  be  determined  more 
accurately  by  the  condition  of  the  teeth.  The  milk 
teeth,  or  first  set,  differ  from  the  permanent  teeth,  or 
second  set,  in  size,  shape,  and  frequently  in  color. 
Animals  shed  the  milk  teeth  at  a  definite  age,  which 
is  very  nearly  the  same  for  all  animals  of  a  species,  but 
which  may  vary  according  to  conditions,  such  as  early 
maturity  or  differences  in  feed. 

The  determination  of  the  age  of  animals  which  are 
used  for  a  longer  time,  such  as  the  horse  and  dairy  cow. 


224  FARM   PROJECTS 

is  more  important  and  also  more  difficult.  The  horse's 
usefulness  depends  largely  upon  its  age,  and  horse 
buyers  always  "mouth"  the  horse;  that  is,  they  look 
into  the  mouth  to  tell  the  age. 

Sheep. — It  is  not  difficult  to  tell  the  age  of  a  sheep 
when  it  is  under  five  years  old,  as,  in  general,  it  is  true 
that  a  sheep  is  half  as  many  years  old  as  the  number 
of  front  teeth.  Sometimes  we  hear  the  expression 
"a  two-toothed  sheep,"  meaning  a  yearling.  The  first 
pair  of  pinchers,  or  front  teeth  of  the  sheep,  appear  when 
the  sheep  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  months  old,  and 
the  next  pair  of  teeth  appear  when  the  sheep  is  two 
years  old.  The  others  follow  at  intervals  of  one  year. 
Thus  the  sheep  is  one  year  old  when  there  are  two 
permanent  teeth,  two  years  old  when  there  are  four, 
three  years  old  when  there  are  six,  and  four  years  old 
when  there  are  eight. 

Cattle. — It  is  not  so  easy  to  remember  the  condition 
of  the  teeth  in  the  cow's  mouth  at  the  diff^erent  ages. 
The  following  table  will  indicate  the  condition  of  the 
teeth  at  various  ages: 

At  eighteen  months — first  pair  of  permanent  teeth,  or  pinchers. 
At  thirty  months — second  pair,  first  intermediates. 
At  thirty-nine  months — third  pair,  or  second  intermediates. 
At  forty-eight  months — fourth  pair,  or  corner  teeth. 

The  cow  has  a  ''full  mouth,"  then,  when  she  is  four 
years  old.  It  is  difficult  to  tell  the  age  beyond  this 
period.  At  six  years  the  pinchers  have  worn  level,  and 
at  eight  years  they  begin  to  show  cups  in  them.    The 


HOW  TO  TELL  THE  AGE  OF  ANIMALS    225 


Cups 


teeth  wear  continually,  and  are  good  indications  of  the 
age  of  the  cow. 

If  the  horns  have  been  allowed  to  grow,  they  will 
indicate  the  age^  as  a  ring  appears  on  each  horn 
when  the  cow  is  three  years  old.  After  that  time,  one 
new  ring  appears  each  year.  If  the  horn  shows  eight 
rings,  the  cow  is  ten  years  of  age.  Try  this  method  at 
home  and  check  with  the  known  ages  of  the  cows. 

Horses. — One  can  tell  the  age  of  a  horse  by  the  teeth, 
unless  the  teeth  have  been 
"doctored"  or  ground  in 
a  way  to  make  them  ab- 
normal. When  the  teeth 
first  appear,  they  contain 
deep  grooves  or  cups,  and 
after  the  horse  has  a  full 
mouth,  the  teeth  wear 
rapidly.  The  cups  disap- 
pear because  of  this 
wearing,  disappearing 
first  from  the  two  front 
teeth  in  the  lower  jaw. 
After  that  the  cups  disap- 
pear from  one  pair  each 
year.  After  the  age  of 
ten,  the  teeth  begin  to 
wear  down  to  a  three-sided  shape  and  grow  longer. 
At  fifteen,  the  teeth  are  worn  so  much  that  they  are 
usually  separated  by  rather  wide  spaces. 


Fig.  49.  Diagram  showing  condition 
OF  horsk's  tketh  at  kight  ykars  of 
AGE.  Cups  worn  shallow  in  lower 
TEETH,     Upper  TEETH  NOT  worn 


226  FARM   PROJECTS 

The  following  poem  will  help  to  keep  in  mind  the 
order  of  eruption  and  wearing  of  a  horse's  teeth,  and 
should  be  memorized: 

The  Age  of  the  Horse  in  Verse 

Two  middle  nippers  you  behold 
Before  the  colt  is  two  weeks  old ; 
Before  eight  weeks  two  more  will  come; 
Eight  months,  the  "corners'*  cut  the  gum. 

At  two,  the  middle  nippers  drop; 
At  three,  the  second  pair  can't  stop; 
When  four  years  old  the  third  pair  goes; 
At  five,  a  full  new  set  he  shows. 

The  deep  black  spots  will  pass  from  view. 
At  six  years,  from  the  middle  two; 
The  second  pair  at  seven  years; 
At  eight,  the  spots  each  "corner"  clears. 

From  middle  nippers,  upper  jaw, 
At  nine  the  black  spots  will  withdraw; 
The  second  pair  at  ten  are  white; 
Eleven  finds  the  "corners"  light. 

As  time  goes  on  the  horsemen  know 
The  oval  teeth  three-sided  grow; 
They  longer  get,  project  before, 
Till  twenty,  when  we  know  no  more. 

There  are  some  milestones  in  the  life  of  the  horse  that 
are  distinctly  marked  by  the  condition  of  the  teeth. 
To  learn  these  few  milestones  will  aid  in  remembering 
the  details  of  telling  the  age  of  the  horse. 


HOW  TO  TELL  THE  AGE  OF  ANIMALS    227 

At  two  years  of  age,  the  first  two  nippers  or  perma- 
nent pinchers  appear.  At  five  years,  a  full  mouth  or 
full  set  of  teeth  appears.  At  eight,  the  lower  jaw  is 
smooth;  that  is,  the  cups  are  worn  from  all  the  teeth 
in  that  jaw.  The  next  year  the  cups  wear  from  the 
middle  nippers  of  the  upper  jaw  and  from  another 
pair  each  year  so  that  at  eleven  the  upper  jaw  is  smooth, 
making  another  milestone. 


Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

I.   The  class  should  arrange  the  facts  gathered  from  the  farm  as 
follows : 


Farm  (Name) 

Horses,  UNDER  5 

Horses,  5-10 

Horses,  OVER  10  Years 

Totals 

What  has  become  of  the  horses  over  ten  years  of  age?  At  what 
age  are  horses  usually  sold?  What  is  the  best  "working  age"  for 
horses  on  the  farms? 

2.  Where   do  horse  buyers   ship   the   horses  from  your  com- 
munity? 

3.  Tell  how  horses  are  loaded  into  the  car  for  shipment.     How 
many  horses  will  the  car  accommodate? 

4.  How  are  horses  handled  and  sold  in  the  markets  ? 

5.  Are  milk  cows  sold  as  young  as  horses?     When  is  a  milk 
cow  at  her  best  for  milk  production  ? 


228  FARM   PROJECTS 

6.  What  becomes  of  the  calves  that  are  not  kept  for  the  herd?. 

7.  Tell  about  the  oldest  horse  and  oldest  cow  you  have  ever 
seen. 

8.  Estimate  the  value  of  the  horses  on  the  farms  represented 
in  the  class. 

9.  Has  the  value  of  horses  increased  or  decreased  during  the 
past  decade.? 

10.    Find  out  at  what  age  the  ewes  are  regarded  as  too  old  to  be 
kept  on  the  farm. 


VIII 
THE  HORSE 

Home  Work 

The  time  spent  in  studying  the  horse  should  be  spent 
in  observation  for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  answers 
to  the  questions  listed. 

Each  pupil  should  again  enlist  the  cooperation  of 
his  father  to  help  him  determine  the  ages  of  the  horses 
by  examining  the  teeth.  If  the  exact  age  is  known, 
check  the  accuracy  of  the  method  of  telling  the  age  by 
the  teeth.  Your  father  will  help  you  to  find  such  indi- 
cations of  unsoundness  as  splints,  jacks,  curbs,  ring 
bones,  side  bones,  and  moon  blindness.  Be  ready  to  give 
your  father's  method  of  determining  blemishes.  Try  to 
estimate  the  weights  of  the  horses.  If  you  have  a  farm 
scale,  weigh  some  of  the  horses  and  check  your  ability 
to  "guess  weights."  Make  some  definite  observation 
to  answer  one  or  two  of  the  following  questions  each 
day  for  a  week: 

1.  How  many  horses  are  there  on  the  farms  which  the  members 
of  the  class  represent? 

2.  What  is  the  average  weight  of  the  horses  on  your  farm  ? 

3.  What  breeds  of  horses  are  represented  in  the  community? 

4.  Who  said,  "My  kingdom  for  a  horse"? 

229 


230  FARM   PROJECTS 

5.  How  does  a  horse  get  up  ? 

6.  In  what  way  does  the  pace  differ  from  the  trot? 

7.  What  blemishes  and  unsoundnesses  can  you  find  on  the 
horses  at  home? 

8.  What  words  do  your  horses  seem  to  understand  ? 

9.  At  what  age  should  the  colt  be  weaned? 

10,  How  old  are  the  horses  on  your  farm  ? 

11.  Estimate  the  yearly  cost  of  keeping  a  work  horse  on  your 
farm,  feeding  as  your  father  feeds. 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

The  Horse  as  a  Power  Machine. — There  is  approxi- 
mately one  horse  to  every  ten  people  in  the  United 
States.  How  does  this  proportion  compare  with  the 
proportion  in  your  community?  There  are  two  main 
types  of  horses:  the  Hght  type  and  the  heavy  or  draft 
type.  We  shall  study  only  the  draft  type  because  it 
is  of  greater  importance  than  the  light  type  or  road- 
ster since  the  automobile  has  become  so  common. 
Although  in  some  sections  the  farm  tractor  has  partially 
replaced  the  horse  as  a  power  machine,  it  is  safe  to 
state  that  the  time  is  not  likely  to  come  when  the  horse 
will  no  longer  be  needed  on  the  farm.  There  is  still 
much  work  to  be  done  which  is  not  adapted  to  the  use 
of  a  tractor  and  since  about  one  horse  in  five  is  used  up 
each  year,  farmers  must  continually  breed  horses  to 
keep  the  supply  up  to  the  demand.  The  horse  is  dis- 
tinctly a  work  animal,  and  must  repay  the  farmer  for 
the  care  given  him  by  performing  service  in  the  form  of 


THE   HORSE 


231 


0     w 


232  FARM   PROJECTS 

work.  This  means  that  the  farmer  should  seek  horses 
which  are  adapted  to  work.  The  horse  is  the  farmer's 
servant  and  should  be  cared  for  in  the  best  way  possible. 

Breeds  of  Draft  Horses. — The  most  commonly  known 
breed  is  the  Percheron,  its  name  coming  from  its 
original  home,  La  Perche,  France.  Percheron  horses 
may  be  any  one  of  a  number  of  colors,  the  most  common 
colors  being  black  and  gray.  The  horses  of  this  breed 
are  very  active,  are  built  close  to  the  ground,  and  are 
short  and  massive  in  form,  with  a  particularly  neat 
head. 

Another  breed  somewhat  similar  to  the  Percheron 
is  the  Belgian,  a  breed  which  is  very  popular  in  this 
country.  The  Belgian  is  of  massive  build;  the  neck  is 
short  and  thick,  frequently  having  a  very  noticeable 
crest.  The  characteristic  color  seems  to  be  roan,  al- 
though many  other  colors  are  found.  The  legs  are 
somewhat  heavier  and  coarser  than  those  of  the  Per- 
cheron. 

Two  other  main  breeds  of  draft  horses  are  found  in 
the  United  States,  the  Clydesdale  originating  in  Scot- 
land and  the  Shire  coming  from  England.  Both  of 
these  breeds  are  distinguished  from  the  first  two  men- 
tioned by  the  heavy  ** feather"  or  hair  on  the  legs. 
Both  breeds  usually  have  white  points  on  the  legs  and 
face.  The  Shire  is  perhaps  the  heaviest  of  the  draft 
breeds. 

Some  Earmarks  of  a  Good  Horse. — The  work  horse 
should  be  sound,  with  legs  that  are  clean  and  free  from 


THE   HORSE  233 

blemishes.  A  most  important  part  of  the  horse's 
anatomy  is  his  foot,  which  should  be  large  and  sound 
with  a  strong  healthy  shell  on  the  hoof.  Sometimes 
the  hoof  is  flat,  exposing  the  heel  to  the  rough  ground, 
causing  lameness.  This  is  more  likely  to  be  true  of 
draft  horses  than  of  light  horses. 

The  horse  must  have  a  strong  muscular  body  if  he 
is  to  perform  the  work  which  is  set  for  him.  The 
quarters  should  be  well  muscled  and  the  body  should 
not  present  the  long,  lanky,  and  awkward  form  that  is 
sometimes  seen.  Occasionally  we  hear  the  remark 
about  a  horse,  "there  is  too  much  daylight  under  him" 
which  means  that  he  is  "long  coupled"  and  stands  high 
oflF  the  ground,  which  is  undesirable.  The  disposition 
of  a  horse  can  usually  be  determined  by  looking  into 
his  face.  Those  which  are  small,  squint-eyed,  and 
weasel-faced  should  be  avoided.  The  neck  should  be 
muscular  and  rather  high,  the  low-necked  or  "ewe- 
necked"  horse  being  undesirable.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  the  horse  is  a  good  indication  of  his  value.  Qual- 
ity stands  out  in  the  coat,  the  eye,  the  mane,  and  tail, 
and  in  the  action  of  the  horse.  A  large  clear  eye,  a 
silky  coat,  and  a  long  tail  indicate  desirable  quality. 

"  Horse  Sense." — This  expression  is  familiar  to  all  boys 
and  suggests  that  the  horse  is  able  to  get  along  fairly 
well  if  allowed  to  do  as  he  pleases  without  interference. 
Farmers  sometimes  say  that  when  driving  on  a  dark 
night,  the  best  policy  is  to  let  the  horse  pick  the  road. 
At  any  rate,  horses  are  very  sensitive  creatures,  as 


234  FARM   PROJECTS 

every  boy  on  the  farm  knows.  The  language  used  in 
guiding  the  horse  is  familiar,  the  terms  "Get  up/ 
"Whoa,"  "Gee,"  "Haw,"  "Back,  "and"  Steady"  be- 
ing common  expressions  of  the  driver.  Horses  are  very 
sensitive  to  the  touch.  Riders  guide  and  direct  the 
actions  of  their  steeds  largely  by  touch,  using  a  stick, 
the  hand,  the  reins,  the  leg,  the  spurs,  or  the  movement 
of  the  body  in  the  saddle.  We  should  respect  this 
sensitiveness  of  the  horse  by  giving  him  kind  treatment. 

Care  of  the  Horse. — The  horse  will  respond  to  kind 
and  thoughtful  care.  He  also  responds  to  rough  treat- 
ment, but  not  as  we  should  like  to  have  him  do.  The 
horse  is  our  servant,  consequently,  we  should  do  all  we 
can  to  make  his  work  easy  and  profitable,  remembering 
that  the  horse  cannot  help  himself  in  most  cases,  but 
is  under  our  control. 

Here  is  an  old  verse  which  tells  what  the  horse  will 
appreciate: 

1.  **  Bear  me  up  the  hill, 

Spare  me  down  the  hill, 

On  the  level  spare  me  not, 

But  give  me  drink  when  I  am  hot." 

2.  The  legs  of  the  horse  often  get  very  tired.  How  good  it 
must  feel  to  him  after  a  hot  day's  work  to  have  his  legs  washed  and 
rubbed.  In  the  winter,  the  mud  and  ice  cause  "scratches"  if  the 
legs  are  left  without  washing. 

3.  The  collar  must  fit  exactly  or  sore  shoulders  will  result  as 
the  "pull"  is  on  the  collar.  Boj^s  and  girls  know  how  unpleasant 
it  is  to  wear  shoes  which  blister  the  toes  or  heels,  and  a  horse 
must  feel  the  same  way  when  the  collar  hurts. 


THE   HORSE 


235 


236  FARM   PROJECTS 

4.  If  the  hoof  is  allowed  to  split  and  break  off  to  the  "quick," 
how  unpleasant  it  must  be.  The  horse  cannot  remedy  this  de- 
fect so  the  master  should  trim  the  hoofs  and  keep  the  horse  properly 
shod. 

5.  The  stables  should  be  kept  clean,  for  horses  as  well  as  people 
like  clean  beds. 

6.  Whipping  a  horse  usually  does  very  little  good;  a  better 
response  may  be  obtained  through  kind  treatment. 

7.  Give  treatment  or  call  a  veterinarian  as  soon  as  a  horse 
shows  symptoms  of  illness  and  do  not  continue  to  work  a  sick 
horse. 

8.  The  horse  always  appreciates  plenty  of  good  wholesome 
food;  a  horse  kept  in  good  condition  is  ready  to  serve  his  master 
willingly. 

Some  Good  Feeds  for  Horses. — Timothy  hay,  corn, 
and  oats  are  the  feeds  most  commonly  used.  There 
are  other  hays,  however,  that  may  be  used  with  results 
as  good  as  or  better  than  those  obtained  by  the  use  of 
timothy.  Alfalfa  hay  being  richer  in  protein  is  better 
for  growing  colts  and  is  also  a  good  feed  for  work  horses. 
Many  farmers  claim  it  should  not  be  fed  to  work 
horses,  but  the  author  knows  a  number  of  cases  in 
which  alfalfa  was  the  only  hay  used  for  horses,  and 
good  results  were  obtained.  The  difficulty  sometimes 
experienced  is  due  probably  to  overfeeding.  Clover 
hay  is  used  extensively  as  horse  feed,  but  clover  and 
timothy  mixed  is  probably  better.  The  horse  does  not 
use  as  large  quantities  of  rough  feed  as  the  cow  does, 
but  needs  a  larger  proportion  of  grain.  Usually  three 
feeds  of  grain  are  given  each  day. 


THE   HORSE  237 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Give   the   distinguishing   features   of  the   four  main   draft 
breeds  of  horses. 

2.  Tell  where  to  locate  the  following  blemishes  on  a  horse: 
splint,  curb,  spavin. 

3.  Give  five  characteristics  of  a  good  horse. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "horse  sense"? 

5.  Discuss  the  important  items  involved  in  the  care  of  the  horse. 

6.  Why  should  the  collar  fit  exactly? 

7.  Why  is  it  important  to  know  the  age  of  horses? 

8.  Describe  the  condition  of  the  teeth  in  the  mouth  of  a  horse 
that  is  five  years  old.     What  is  meant  by  a  "  full-mouthed  horse "  ? 


IX 
BEEF  CATTLE 

Home  Work 

Each  pupil  should  study  the  meat  production  on 
his  home  farm  and  a  tabulated  statement  may  be  made 
by  combining  the  facts  gathered.  Fill  in  the  following 
blank  form: 

Beef  Cattle  Survey  for  School  Community 


Farm 

Number 

Beef 
Cattle 

Are  Feeders     At  What 
Breed       Raised  or            Age 

Purchased      Marketed 

Number 

Sold  Last 

Year 

1                        1 

If  possible,  visit  a  farm  where  a  beef  animal  is 
being  butchered  and  observe  the  process.  How  does 
butchering  beef  cattle  differ  from  butchering  hogs.^ 
What  is  the  approximate  weight  of  the  hide  from  an 
animal  weighing  one  thousand  pounds  .?  What  is 
tallow?  To  what  product  of  the  hog  does  tallow 
correspond.?  What  is  the  ''dressing  percentage"  of 
a  beef  animal,  that  is,  what  per  cent  of  the  live  weight 
is  the  dressed  weight.? 

238 


BEEF  CATTLE 


239 


At  what  age  are  steers  marketed  on  your  farm? 
What  method  of  feeding  cattle  is  used  on  the  farms  in 
the  community  and  what  are  the  principal  feeds  used  ? 

Compare  a  beef  cow  with  a  dairy  cow  and  list  all 
the  differences  which  you  observe.     What  beef  cattle 


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Courtesy  of  Animal  Husbandry  Dcpartmenl,  University  oj  Illinois. 

FiG.  52.    Columbia  iith  and  calf,  showing  good  Hereford  type 

do  not  have  horns?  How  many  colors  of  beef  cattle 
have  you  seen?  Can  you  tell  how  a  cow  gets  up? 
Does  she  get  up  in  the  same  way  that  a  horse  gets 
up?  Can  you  tell  why  some  farmers  prefer  to  feed 
their  cattle  in  open  sheds  even  in  the  winter  time 
rather  than  to  feed  them  in  enclosed  barns?     Study 


240  FARM   PROJECTS 

the  feeds  fed  to  steers  in  the  community  and  estimate 
the  cost  of  feeding  a  fattening  steer  six  months. 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Can  you  imagine  a  blanket  of  beefsteak  big  enough 
to  cover  the  whole  state  of  Indiana,  cities,  farms,  rivers, 
and  all  other  parts?  Enough  beef  is  produced  in  the 
United  States  each  year  to  make  a  steak  of  that  size  if 
it  could  be  put  into  one  great  steak.  The  beef  cow 
furnishes  us  with  one  of  the  most  important  and  staple 
articles  of  food.  She  turns  her  food  into  meat  while 
the  dairy  cow  converts  the  food  she  eats  into  milk. 
Consequently  beef  cows  are  not  great  milk  producers. 
It  is  not  possible  to  produce  two  products  at  the  same 
time  and  produce  them  in  large  quantity.  The  cow 
must  use  her  food  either  for  milk  production  or  for 
meat  production.  A  dairy  cow  is  likely  to  lose  flesh  as 
she  continues  to  give  milk  in  large  quantities,  but  a  beef 
cow  should  lay  on  fat  as  she  consumes  her  feed,  pro- 
ducing only  milk  enough  for  her  calf,  except  in  a  few 
instances  where  milking  strains  of  the  beef  breeds  have 
been  developed. 

When  Marketed. — Beef  cattle  are  marketed  young 
because  the  beef  products  from  a  young  animal  are  of 
much  better  quality  than  those  of  an  older  animal. 
Then,  too,  it  is  not  profitable  to  feed  a  steer  for  two 
or  three  years  before  he  is  *' finished"  for  the  market 
because  the  increase  in  weight  is  not  sufficient  to  pay 


BEEF  CATTLE  241 

for  the  feed  and  care.  Much  of  the  beef  is  produced 
from  *'baby  beeves";  that  is,  from  animals  of  about 
one  year  of  age  which  have  been  fattened  for  market. 
Steers  from  twelve  to  eighteen  months  of  age  are  fat- 
tened and  made  to  weigh  from  1,000-1,400  pounds  each, 
then  are  sent  to  market  as  "baby  beeves."  It  is 
necessary  to  have  a  good  grade  of  cattle  in  order  to 
produce  good  "baby  beef"  at  a  profit.  The  results 
depend  upon  a  rapid  increase  in  weight,  hence  the  best 
feeders  are  required  for  this  purpose. 

The  Range. — It  has  been  a  common  practice  for 
cattlemen  to  produce  large  numbers  of  feeders,  cattle 
ready  to  be  fattened,  by  pasturing  cattle  on  wide 
ranges  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States.  These 
feeders  are  sent  to  the  central  markets  and  are  sold 
to  farmers  who  have  grain  to  fatten  them.  When 
they  have  been  fattened  or  "finished"  they  are  sent 
to  market  for  slaughter.  The  ranges  are  becoming 
somewhat  smaller  because  of  the  extension  of  grain 
farming  into  the  west,  and  more  cattle  are  being 
raised  on  the  farms  where  they  are  to  be  fattened  for 
market. 

Feeding  Beef  Cattle. — Beef  cattle  may  be  fattened  on 
roughage  or  on  a  mixture  of  grain  and  roughage.  Good 
results  have  been  obtained  by  feeding  corn  silage  and 
alfalfa  hay,  with  a  small  amount  of  cottonseed  meal. 
Corn  silage  is  a  most  satisfactory  addition  to  the  ration. 
Steers  may  be  fattened  on  alfalfa  alone  if  no  silage  is 
available,   as   in   the   case  of  the   western    feed    lots. 


242  FARM   PROJECTS 

Cattle  should  receive  clover,  alfalfa,  soy-beans  or  cow 
peas.  Some  typical  rations  are  given  below  for  steers 
weighing  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds: 

1.  Clover  hay lo  lb.  Shelled  corn 51b. 

Corn  silage 20  lb.  3.    Mixed  hay 20  lb. 

Shelled  corn 10  lb.  Corn                         10  lb. 

2.  Alfalfa 15  lb.  4.    Alfalfa At  will 

Corn  silage 251b.  Corn  silage 20  lb. 

Cottonseed    meal.    3  lb. 

Raising  the  Calf. — Beef  calves  are  usually  allowed 
to  suck  the  cow  until  they  are  three  or  four  months 
old  which  gives  them  a  good  start  and  makes  a  good 
foundation  for  "baby  beef."  The  dairy  calf  is  usually 
taken  away  from  the  mother  and  fed  skim  milk  and 
some  kind  of  calf  meal  and  a  little  roughage,  because 
the  milk  from  the  cow  is  too  valuable  to  feed  the  calf 
when  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  good  dairy  calf  without 
feeding  it  the  whole  milk.  If  the  beef  calves  are  fed 
by  hand  they  should  have  whole  milk  at  first  in  order 
to  insure  a  good  start.  They  should  in  either  case  be 
given  a  little  grain  as  soon  as  they  will  eat  it.  A 
mixture  of  oats  and  corn  w  ith  a  little  cottonseed  meal 
or  linseed  meal  makes  a  good  feed  for  the  calves  that 
are  on  pasture  and  that  are  getting  some  milk.  If 
baby  beef  is  to  be  produced,  calves  must  be  kept  grow- 
ing continuously. 

Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle. — There  are  four  main  breeds 
of  beef  cattle  and  most  farm  boys  are  familiar  with  at 
least  one  of  the  breeds.     The  main  characteristics  of 


BEEF  CATTLE  243 

the  breeds  will  be  noted  here  in  order  that  we  may 
learn  to  distinguish  them. 

The  Shorthorn. — The  Shorthorns  may  be  said  to  be 
the  most  popular  breed  in  the  United  States.     The 


y  I'f  Animal  Urn 'hi  miry  Dt  purlmenl,  Univcnily  of  Illinois, 


Fig.  53.     Reprlsentative  Shorthorns.    Niagara  Duchess  and 
Niagara  Las> 


Shorthorns  are  blocky  in  form,  presenting  a  rectan- 
gular appearance  from  the  side  view.  The  horns  are 
short  and  are  curved  forward.  The  color  may  be 
pure  white,  pure  red,  or  roan.  The  color  is  not  so  dis- 
tinctive as  that  of  some  of  the  other  breeds.  Short- 
horns are  easily  fattened  and  are  very  well  developed 


244  FARM   PROJECTS 

in  the  parts  of  the  body  where  the  highest  priced  cuts 
are  found.     The  breed  was  developed  in  England. 

Herefords. — These  beautiful  cattle  are  red  and  white 
in  color,  having  a  red  body  with  white  face  and  white 


Couitc  .;,.•,.    Hi   ■' ill '.;  l)-:partmcnt,  Univenily  oj  Illinois. 

Fig.   54.     Such  animals  as  these  help  .viak.e  profits  on  the  farm. 

underline,  and  are  very  popular  as  grazing  cattle. 
They,  too,  were  developed  more  than  a  century  ago 
in  England  and  have  become  one  of  the  most  important 
breeds.  It  is  said  that  Henry  Clay  imported  the  first 
Herefords  into  the  United  States  more  than  a  hundred 
years  ago.  The  horns  are  very  distinctive,  being  long  and 
white,  turning  in  or  in  some  cases  turning  up,  slightly. 


BEEF  CATTLE  245 

Angus. — The  black  hornless  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle 
came  to  us  from  Scotland.  They  are  extremely  neat  in 
form  and  compact  in  their  build.  The  beef  produced 
is  recognized  as  being  of  extra  good  quality.  The 
breed  is  very  uniform  in  size,  shape,  color,  and  general 
appearance.  Fat  Angus  steers  are  usually  so  uniform 
in  size  and  neat  in  appearance  that  they  bring  the 
highest  prices. 

Galloways. — These  cattle  are  also  black  and  horn- 
less. They  came  from  Scotland  as  did  the  Angus. 
The  Galloways  have  a  very  thick  coat  of  long  hair  which 
sometimes  has  a  brownish  tinge  and  is  usually  curly. 
They  are  smaller  than  the  other  breeds  of  beef  cattle 
described. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  State  the  differences  between  beef  cattle  and  dairy  cattle. 

2.  If  the  average  dressing  percentage  of  3,000,000  beef  cattle 
going  into  the  Chicago  market  during  one  year  is  58%,  what  is 
the  weight  of  the  carcass  beef,  assuming  an  average  live  weight  of 
1,050  lb.  per  animal.? 

3.  If  yearUng  steers  make  an  average  gain  of  1.75  lb.  dail}^  how 
many  days  must  they  be  fed  to  gain  340  lb.  each .? 

4.  If  the  average  shrinkage  due  to  shipping  is  40  lb.  per  animal, 
what  is  the  total  loss  to  shippers  who  ship  3,000,000  cattle  to  Chi- 
cago during  a  year.''  What  is  the  value  of  this  shrinkage  at  13c. 
per  lb. .? 

5.  If  steers  gain  1.8  lb.  per  day,  how  many  days'  feed  is  lost 
when  they  shrink  40  lb.  in  shipping.?  (A  part  of  the  margin  be- 
tween the  local  buyer's  price  and  the  market  price  is  to  cover  the 
shrinkage.) 


246  FARM   PROJECTS 

6.  What  breed  of  beef  cattle  do  you  like  best  and  why? 

7.  Find  the  total  receipts  of  cattle  at  the  following  markets 
each  day  for  one  week:  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Indianap- 
olis, Cincinnati.  Can  you  suggest  a  reason  for  the  differences 
among  the  cities.?  On  what  day  of  the  week  is  the  largest  number 
received  at  the  markets.?  Why.?  (Consult  the  market  reports  in 
a  daily  newspaper.) 

8.  At  what  age  are  most  of  the  cattle  in  your  community  mar- 
keted .? 

9.  Make  suggestions  for  improving  the  rations  fed  to  beef  cattle 
in  your  community. 

10.  If  20  head  of  steers  are  fed  a  ration  of  10  lb.  mixed  hay,  15  lb. 
of  corn,  and  2  lb.  of  cottonseed  meal  each  day  for  30  days,  what 
is  the  total  cost  of  the  feed  at  your  market  prices  for  the  feeds  men- 
tioned .?  What  would  the  daily  gain  have  to  be  per  steer  to  pay  for 
the  feed  at  market  prices  for  cattle.?  To  yield  a  profit  of  20% 
above  cost  of  feed .? 


X 

THE   BREEDS  OF   DAIRY  COWS 

Home  Work 

Make  a  survey  of  the  community  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  representative  breeds  of  dairy  cows  in  the 
community  and  the  number  of  each  breed.  Each 
member  of  the  class  should  be  responsible  for  his  home 
farm  and  another  on  the  road  to  school. 

Tabulate  the  results,  as  follows: 


Farm 

Breed 

Number 

Total  Amount 
OF  Milk  Daily 



Secure  samples  of  milk  from  each  of  the  breeds  and 
test  with  the  Babcock  tester,  following  directions 
given  in  Section  HI  of  Part  H.  What  differences 
do  you  find  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  .?  What  differ- 
ences in  color  markings  among  the  breeds  in  your  com- 
munity do  you  find? 

Ask  the  farmers  to  tell  you  the  advantages  of  the 
different  breeds  of  dairy  cows.  What  breed  seems  to 
be  most  popular  among  the  farmers .?     Give  the  reasons. 

247 


248  FARM   PROJECTS 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

The  Breeds. — A  breed  of  cattle  is  a  group,  the 
members  of  which  are  similar  in  form,  size,  color,  and 
peculiar  markings.  Much  interest  has  been  taken  in 
the  United  States  by  the  associations  representing  the 
breeds  of  dairy  cattle  to  promote  the  interests  of  their 
breeds.  Each  breed  has  its  particular  good  points 
that  merit  the  consideration  of  every  dairyman.  The 
major  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  are:  Holstein,  Jersey, 
Guernsey,  Ayrshire,  and  Brown  Swiss. 

The  Holsteins. — The  Holstein  is  the  most  widely 
distributed  breed  and  is  represented  by  larger  numbers 
than  any  other  in  the  United  States.  The  breed 
originated  in  the  Netherlands,  coming  from  the  prov- 
inces of  North  Holland  and  West  Friesland.  The 
Dutch  farmers  have  long  practiced  dairying,  producing 
large  quantities  of  cheese.  This  breed  is  perhaps  the 
oldest  of  the  dairy  breeds.  The  land  in  Holland  is 
valued  at  very  high  prices,  and  the  cattle  are  fed 
largely  upon  pasture  and  hay  produced  on  these  rich 
lands.  This  may  account  for  the  size  of  the  breed. 
The  Holsteins  did  not  get  a  start  in  the  United  States 
until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  when  large 
numbers  were  imported.  A  registry  association  was 
soon  formed,  and  the  Holstein  has  continued  to  grow 
more  popular  as  a  dairy  cow. 

Characteristics. — Holsteins  are  black  and  white  in 
color,  most  breeders  preferring  cows  with  more  white 


THE   BREEDS  OF   DAIRY  COWS 


249 


on  them  than  black.  The  spots  may  be  large  or  small 
and  may  be  distributed  in  any  way.  In  size  the  Hol- 
steins  are  large,  the  cows  weighing  from  1,200  to  1,700 
pounds  and  the  males  from  1,800  to  2,200  pounds.  The 


Courtesy  l.i.n  <ii  Lxpit :i>:i-i'j  >::ii,>n. 

Fig.  55.     PiETERTji  Parthenea  Tritomia  No.  234291  produced  403.6  lb.  milk 

AND  17.36  LB.    BUTTER   IN   7  DAYS  AND  15,760.7  LB.    MILK   AND  632.72  LB.  BUTTER 
AS  A  JUNIOR  TWO-YEAR-OLD.       ShE  IS  OWNED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS. 

breed  is  not  so  refined  and  does  not  look  so  much  like 
the  so-called  dairy  types  as  some  other  breeds,  and  the 
cows  are  rugged  and  eat  large  quantities  of  feed. 

Holsteins  produce  more  milk  than  any  other  breed  but 
the  milk  is  not  so  rich  in  butter  fat  as  that  from  some 
other  breeds.     The  Holstein  breed  holds  the  world's 


250  FARM   PROJECTS 

record  for  milk  production  and  for  butter  fat  produc- 
tion. Tillie  Alcarta,  a  Holstein  cow  of  California,  has 
produced  more  than  sixteen  tons  of  milk  in  one  year 
and  more  than  1,200  pounds  of  butter  fat,  making 
almost  1,500  pounds  of  butter  produced  in  one  year  by 
one  cow. 

Many  people  object  to  Holstein  milk  because  it  is 
less  rich  than  Jersey  milk  but  part  of  the  difference 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  particles  of  fat  in  Holstein 
milk  are  much  smaller  than  those  in  Jersey  milk  and 
for  this  reason  the  cream  does  not  rise  so  quickly  and 
is  not  so  thick.  The  cream  is  also  lighter  in  color  than 
Jersey  cream.  Holstein  milk  is  very  digestible,  due  to 
the  condition  of  the  fat  particles  and  many  people 
claim  that  it  is  much  better  for  babies  than  the  milk  of 
any  other  cow. 

The  Holsteins  are  distributed  through  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  but  are  found  in  larger 
numbers  in  the  sections  producing  milk  for  the  large 
cities.  Southern  Wisconsin,  northern  Illinois,  and  New 
York  State  are  literally  dotted  with  black  and  white 
cattle  grazing  on  the  pastures.  One  county  in  Wiscon- 
sin is  said  to  have  more  than  sixty  thousand  cows, 
mostly  Holsteins,  giving  milk  for  the  creameries,  cheese 
factories,  and  condenseries.  The  breed  is  not  so  widely 
distributed  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  as  in 
the  colder  sections  near  Chicago  and  New  York. 

Jerseys. — The  Jersey  breed  came  from  a  small  island 
belonging   to   the   Channel   Islands   off   the   coast   of 


THE   BREEDS  OF   DAIRY  COWS  251 

France  and  England.  The  island  of  Jersey  is  very 
small,  containing  only  about  one  hundred  square 
miles,  but  more  than  ten  thousand  cattle  are  kept 
there.  No  cattle  can  be  shipped  into  the  island  from 
the  outside,  unless  they  are  to  be  slaughtered  imme- 
diately; thus  the  breeders  have  been  able  to  keep 
the  breed  pure  and  to  develop  it  as  they  wished. 
Jerseys  were  introduced  into  the  United  States  in 
1850. 

Characteristics. — ^Jersey  cows  are  small,  usually 
weighing  less  than  one  thousand  pounds.  The  main 
color  is  fawn,  with  black  markings,  and  sometimes 
white  spots  are  found.  The  Jerseys  are  the  most 
refined  of  the  dairy  breeds,  being  beautiful  animals  of 
very  fine  quality.  The  true  dairy  type  is  found  among 
the  Jerseys  as  they  do  not  lay  on  fat  easily,  and 
are  therefore  very  poor  producers  of  beef.  The  Jersey 
has  been  proved  to  be  a  most  economical  producer  of 
dairy  products,  as  most  of  the  food  eaten  is  turned  into 
milk. 

The  milk  is  the  richest  produced  by  any  breed  of 
cattle.  For  family  use  the  Jersey  milk  is  very  desir- 
able, as  it  produces  a  richly  colored  thick  cream  which 
rises  quickly.  Jerseys  are  persistent  milkers,  which 
means  that  they  give  milk  for  long  periods  of  time, 
frequently  not  going  dry  from  one  freshening  period 
to  the  next. 

Jerseys,  like  Holsteins,  are  very  widely  distributed, 
and  are  to  be  found  in  large  numbers  on  the  blue  grass 


252  FARM   PROJECTS 

pastures  of  the  South.  They  are,  by  nature,  not  so 
rugged  as  the  Holsteins,  and  are  better  adapted  to  the 
warmer  cHmates.  The  Jerseys  are  popular  for  the 
production  of  certified  milk  as  the  milk  meets  the 
requirements  as  to  quality  and  the  cows  are  easily 
handled  under  the  strict  sanitary  conditions  required 
for  the  production  of  a  high  grade  of  milk. 

Guernseys. — The  Guernseys  were  developed  in 
another  one  of  the  Channel  Islands,  the  Isle  of 
Guernsey,  which  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  island 
of  Jersey.  When  the  development  of  the  breed  began, 
the  cattle  were  almost  like  the  Jerseys.  The  breed  was 
brought  into  the  United  States  about  forty  years  ago, 
but  despite  the  many  good  qualities  of  the  breed,  it 
has  never  become  very  popular  among  American 
dairymen. 

Characteristics. — The  Guernseys  are  between  the 
Jerseys  and  Holsteins  in  size,  the  color  being  a  reddish 
fawn  or  orange  color  with  white  spots.  The  udders 
are  large  with  large  teats.  The  cows  are  not  so  fine 
in  quality  and  do  not  present  so  beautiful  an  appear- 
ance as  the  Jerseys.  The  head  is  large  with  a  long 
face,  giving  the  cattle  a  coarser  appearance  than  that 
of  the  Jersey  breed. 

Milk  produced  by  the  Guernsey  cows  is  very  rich  in 
fat,  almost  equaling  that  of  the  Jersey  in  quality.  The 
color  is  more  yellow,  giving  it  a  very  rich  appearance 
and  the  cream  rises  very  quickly,  making  the  milk 
desirable  for  family  use. 


THE   BREEDS  OF   DAIRY  COWS 


253 


Ayrshires. — The  Ayrshire  cattle  were  produced  in 
Scotland,  being  developed  as  a  distinct  breed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  They  were 
imported  into  the  United  States  as  early  as  1822,  but 


Courtesy  of  tite  American  Jersey  CatlU-  Club. 

Fig.  56.  Fauvics  Prince,  Grand  Champion,  Springfield,  Mass.,  show  1919 
AND  Aged  Champion  National  Dairy  Show,  1919.  His  first  twelve  daugh- 
ters HAVE  average  PRODUCTION  OF  9,576  LB.  MILK  AND  S4S  LB.  FAT.  It  PAYS 
TO  HAVE  PURE-BRED  LIVE  STOCK.  ON  THE   FARM. 

have  never  gained  the  popularity  which  they  seem  to 
merit.  Pure-bred  herds  are  found  in  all  the  dairy 
regions,  but  not  in  large  numbers. 

Characteristics. — The  Ayrshire  is  the  most  symmet- 
rical of  the  dairy  breeds;    that  is,  the  body  is  well 


254  FARM   PROJECTS 

proportioned  and  the  lines  are  good.  The  color  is  red 
and  white.  The  horns  are  long  and  turn  upward.  The 
milk  of  the  Ayrshire  is  of  good  quality,  testing  about 
four  per  cent  butter  fat  which  is  less  than  the  Jersey 
but  more  than  the  Holstein  milk  contains.  The  color 
is  not  so  yellow  as  that  of  the  Jersey  milk.  It  is 
expecially  good  for  cheese  making. 

Other  Breeds. — The  Brown  Swiss  dairy  cattle  are 
large  animals,  giving  large  quantities  of  rich  milk. 
They  are  most  like  the  beef  type  of  cattle.  They  are 
easy  milkers  and  are  becoming  more  popular.  As  the 
name  indicates,  the  cows  are  brown  in  color,  frequently 
being  a  greyish  brown. 

The  Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  black  with  a  white 
belt  around  the  body;  hence  their  name.  They  are 
not  heavy  milkers,  and  are  not  very  popular  for  milk 
production  in  the  United  States. 

The  Milking  Shorthorn  is  gaining  popularity  in 
sections  where  a  dual-purpose  cow  is  wanted,  as  the 
calves  make  good  beef  cattle.  The  milking  qualities 
are  being  improved. 

Summary. — Perhaps  no  animals  have  been  given  so 
much  attention  as  the  dairy  cattle,  because  milk  is 
one  of  the  staple  foods  of  the  home.  Milk  produc- 
tion has  been  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  it  seems 
as  though  further  improvement  could  scarcely  be  ex- 
pected, and  yet  each  year  brings  higher  records.  While 
it  is  true  that  high  records  have  been  reached  in  a 
few   instances,   the  great   mass  of  dairy   cattle   have 


THE   BREEDS  OF   DAIRY  COWS  255 

not  approached  the  largest  production.  The  best 
year's  production  from  a  single  cow  is  more  than  thirty- 
seven  thousand  pounds  of  milk,  but  the  average  pro- 
duction is  probably  not  more  than  one  tenth  of  this 
quantity. 

Profits  from  dairy  cattle  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  milk  produced,  so  the  goal  of  every  one  interested 
in  dairy  cattle  of  any  breed  should  be  higher  pro- 
duction. The  following  records  show  the  maximum 
yields  that  have  been  reached  by  breeders. 

The  world's  record  milk  production  for  one  year  is 
held  by  the  following  cows  representing  their  respective 
breeds: 

Breed  Name  of  Cow  Prodlction 

Ayrshire Garclaugh's  May  Mischief 25329       lb.  of  milk 

Jersey Passport 19695        lb.  of  milk 

Guernsey Murmie  Cowan 24008        lb.  of  milk 

Holstcin Segis  Pietertje  Prospect 37381.4    lb.  of  milk 

The  world's  record  fat  production  for  one  year  is 
held  by  the  following  individuals  for  their  respective 
breeds: 

Breed  Name  of  Cow  Production 

Ayrshire Lillie  of  Willowmocr 955-6    lb.  of  fat 

Jersey Plain  .Mary 1040.08  lb.  of  fat 

Guernsey Countess  Prue 1 103.28  lb.  of  fat 

Holstein Bella  Pontiac 1259.0    lb.  of  fat 

To  find  the  amount  of  butter  produced  from  the 
above  amounts  of  fat,  multiply  the  amount  of  fat  in 
each  instance  by  one  and  one  sixth. 


256  FARM   PROJECTS 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  are  the  earmarks  by  which  you  can  distinguish  the 
Holstein  breed?  the  Jersey?  the  Guernsey?  the  Ayrshire? 

2.  Find  the  approximate  value  of  all  the  Holstein  cows  on  the 
farms  in  the  school  community.     Of  the  other  breeds. 

3.  Which  breed  sells  for  most  money  in  your  locality? 

4.  Tillie  Alcarta  produced  33,425  lb.  of  milk  in  one  year.  How 
many  pounds  per  day  did  she  average  for  the  year?  If  a  quart  of 
milk  weighs  2.18  lb.,  how  many  quarts  did  she  produce  in  a  year? 
How  many  gallons  per  day  did  she  average?  What  was  the  value 
of  her  milk  at  I2>^  cents  per  quart?  If  it  cost  $150  to  feed  her  one 
year,  what  was  the  profit  over  the  cost  of  feed  if  the  milk  sold  at 
I2j^  cents  per  quart?  How  many  children  would  she  have  sup- 
plied with  milk  daily  if  each  child  consumed  one  quart?  How 
many  50-gallon  measures  could  have  been  filled  with  her  milk 
during  the  year? 

5.  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby  produced  1,205  lb.  of  butter  fat  in 
one  year.  What  was  her  average  daily  production?  How  much 
butter  is  used  daily  in  your  home?  If  you  had  owned  this  cow, 
how  much  butter  could  you  have  sold  weekly  above  the  amount 
used  by  the  family?     (See  rule  for  changing  butter  fat  to  butter.) 

6.  Estimate  the  total  daily  production  of  milk  on  all  the  farms 
represented  in  the  class.  What  is  the  average  per  cow?  Will  the 
product  yield  a  profit  if  it  costs  $125  a  year  to  feed  each  cow? 

7.  Write  a  composition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects:  How 
I  Learned  to  Milk.  The  Breed  I  Like  Best.  My  Favorite  Cow. 
What  Should  Cows  Be  Fed? 


XI 
SWINE 

Home    Work 

.  Suggestions  for  raising  a  litter  of  pigs  are  given  in 
another  chapter.  We  shall  discuss  in  this  chapter  the 
breeds  of  hogs. 

Make  a  survey  of  the  school  community  to  determine 
the  extent  to  which  pure-bred  hogs  are  raised  and  the 
number  of  breeds  represented.  Fill  out  the  following 
blank: 


Farm 

Number  of 
Hogs 

Plre-Bred 
OR  Grade 

Breed 

Approximate 
Value 

Total 

What  is  the  favorite  breed  of  the  community.? 
Give  some  reasons  why  this  breed  is  the  favorite  one. 
At  what  age  are  hogs  marketed.?  Do  the  farmers  who 
own  pure-bred  hogs  like  them  better  than  grades.? 
What  are  their  reasons.? 

Study  all  the  breeds  of  hogs  you  can  find  on  the  farms 
on  the  way  to  and  from  school  in  order  to  compare 

257 


258 


FARM   PROJECTS 


them.  Note  the  differences  in  regard  to  the  following 
points:  shape  of  head,  way  in  which  the  ears  are  held, 
general  shape  of  body,  color,  peculiarities. 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Importance  of  the  Swine  Industry. — In  19 19  there 
were  almost  75,000,000  hogs  in  the  United  States. 
Pork  is  a  staple  meat  product  and  the  products  which 


r  1'  aid  China  Breeders  Association. 


Fig.  57.    Josephine  ist.  No.  738088.     Grand  Champion  Poland  China  sow, 
National  Swine  Show,  1918,  at  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 

come  from  hogs,  such  as  lard,  are  necessities.  The 
shortage  of  fats  during  the  war  was  an  indication  of 
the  real  importance  of  these  products  and  the  swine 
industry   was    increased    very   rapidly   at    that    time. 


SWINE  259 

More  than  10,000,000,000  pounds  of  pork  were  pro- 
duced in  the  U.S.  during  1919.  Pork  has  been  much 
rehshed  as  an  article  of  food  throughout  the  history  of 
man.  The  wild  boar  was  hunted  for  his  meat.  The 
pork  industry  will  ever  be  a  thriving  part  of  the  farm 
business,  though  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  markets  will 
cause  farmers  to  vary  the  number  of  hogs  that  they 
keep  on  the  farm. 

Breeds. — Every  farmer,  when  he  goes  into  the  swine 
business,  has  to  confront  the  question:  What  breed  shall 
I  choose.''  There  is  a  large  number  of  breeds  and  the 
choice  of  any  one  depends  upon  the  locality  and  the 
individual  liking  of  the  farmer.  A  school  boy  who  was 
a  pig  club  member  favored  the  Chester  White  as  a  breed, 
but  he  said  there  was  already  in  the  community  a 
Duroc  Jersey  Breeders'  Association  that  held  annual 
sales  and  advertised  their  stock  very  widely,  so  he  chose 
the  Duroc  Jersey  breed  and  began  the  hog  business  in 
cooperation  with  his  neighbors. 

There  are  two  main  types  of  hogs:  the  lard  type 
and  the  bacon  type. 

The  Berkshire. — These  hogs  are  becoming  very 
popular  in  the  United  States.  They  are  black  in 
color  with  white  points  on  the  feet  and  face.  The 
face  is  short  and  very  much  **  dished,"  giving  a  peculiar 
shape  and  appearance  to  the  head.  The  breed  is  gener- 
ally considered  of  the  lard  type  although  it  was  origi- 
nally of  the  bacon  type  in  England  where  the  breed  was 
developed. 


26o 


FARM   PROJECTS 


Duroc  Jersey. — This  breed  is  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  the  lard  type.  The  hogs  are  red  in  color  and  are 
very  symmetrical  in  form.  The  ears  droop  over  the 
eye,  while  the  ear  of  the  Berkshire  stands  almost 
erect,  pointing  a  little  forward.     The  Duroc  Jerseys 


Courlesv  Poland  China  Breeders  Association. 


Fig.  58.    Gr.'vnd  Champion  pen  of  barrows  over  all  breeds  at  International 
Live  Stock.  Exposition,  191S 


are  good  feeders,  are  quiet,  and  raise  large  litters 
of  pigs,  all  of  which  makes  them  popular  with  the 
farmer. 

Poland  China. — This  breed  was  developed  in  the 
United  States  and  was  intended  to  be  a  corn-belt  hog 
of  the  lard  type.  It  is  distinctly  of  the  lard  type,  blocky 
in  form,  and  matures  very  quickly.  It  has  enjoyed 
more  popularity  than  any  other  breed  in  the  United 


SWINE  261 

States  because  it  is  adapted  to  a  grain-raising  country. 
There  are  two  varieties,  the  black  and  white  spotted 
and  the  black.  The  black  swine  are  much  more  com- 
monly found.  Some  types  of  Poland  Chinas  grow  to  be 
very  large,  exceptional  ones  weighing  more  than  1,000 
pounds. 

The  Chester  White. — These  beautiful  white  hogs 
have  never  been  so  popular  as  some  of  the  other  breeds, 
though  they  deserve-  much  credit.  The  breed  was 
developed  in  the  United  States.  The  hogs  are  large, 
belonging  to  the  lard  type,  but  are  inclined  to  be  a 
little  coarse. 

Bacon  Types. — The  Yorkshires,  white  in  color,  and 
the  Tamworths,  red  in  color,  are  the  main  breeds  of 
the  bacon  type.  They  are  long,  rangy,  upstanding, 
and  grow  to  an  enormous  size.  Both  breeds  are  good 
hustlers  or  foragers  and  put  on  weight  rapidly  but 
do  not  get  fat  as  the  Poland  Chinas  or  other  lard 
breeds  do. 

The  Hampshire. — This  breed  is  marked  by  a  white 
band  about  the  body  over  the  shoulders  and  front 
legs.  At  first  it  was  a  bacon-type  breed  but  the 
present  tendency  is  to  develop  it  as  a  lard  type.  These 
hogs  are  good  foragers. 

Other  breeds  are:  the  mulefoot,  an  old  breed  with 
a  hoof  solid  instead  of  cloven;  the  Victoria,  a  small 
white  hog;  the  Cheshire,  a  white  breed  originating 
in  New  York;  and  the  Essex,  a  small  black  English 
breed. 


262  FARM   PROJECTS 

Review  Problems  and  Exercises 

1.  How  many  breeds  are  represented  in  your  community? 

2.  Give  some  reasons  for  raising  a  single  breed  of  hogs  rather 
than  having  a  mixed  herd. 

3.  What  is  your  favorite  breed?     Give  your  reasons  for  choos- 
ing this  breed. 

4.  What  was  the  average  number  of  pigs  in  a  litter  on  your 
farm  during  the  past  year? 

5.  Give  some  suggestions  for  the  housing  of  sows  and  their 
litters  gained  from  your  experience  or  observation. 

6.  Give  some  reasons  for  the  favoritism  shown  the  bacon  hog 
in  England  while  the  lard  type  is  most  popular  in  the  United  States. 


XII 
SHEEP 

Home  Work 

Habits. — Observe  the  habits  and  actions  of  the 
sheep  about  the  farm.  How  does  the  sheep  get  up? 
How  does  it  He  down?  What  is  pecuHar  about  the 
sheep's  mouth?  What  happens  when  a  flock  of  sheep 
is  frightened  by  a  dog  or  some  other  enemy?  How 
does  a  ewe  find  her  lamb  when  it  is  lost?  How  can 
she  tell  her  lamb  from  the  others  in  the  flock? 

Handling. — Catch  a  sheep  and  examine  it  to  find  the 
answers  to  the  following  questions:  What  color  is  the 
skin?  How  many  teeth  has  the  sheep?  What  is  its 
age?  Is  the  body  well  filled  out  with  fat  or  is  it  long 
and  angular?  Estimate  the  length  of  the  wool  fibers. 
To  catch  and  hold  a  sheep,  grasp  it  by  the  neck  and 
hold  it  by  the  fore  part  of  the  body  and  do  not  attempt 
to  hold  it  by  the  wool.  In  making  an  examination 
of  the  body  and  wool  the  hands  should  be  kept  flat  and 
the  fingers  together.  To  part  the  wool,  use  both  hands 
with  the  fingers  together;  never  tear  the  wool  apart 
with  the  fingers. 

Docking. — If  there  are  lambs  on  your  farm,  help 
your  father  to  dock  them  when  they  are  from  one  to  two 

263 


264  FARM   PROJECTS 

weeks  of  age.  One  person  should  hold  the  lamb  in 
his  arms  with  its  belly  outward  while  another  person 
cuts  off  the  tail  about  one  and  one  quarter  inches  from 
the  body  with  a  sharp  knife  or  a  docking  iron.  Sheep 
men  now  use  the  docking  iron  in  preference  to  the 
knife.  This  iron  is  a  kind  of  pincers  which  is  heated 
to  redness  and  used  in  clipping  or  burning  the  tail,  thus 
searing  it  to  prevent  bleeding. 

Shearing.— Help  your  father  to  shear  the  sheep  if 
you  have  any.  At  what  time  of  the  year  should  the 
shearing  be  done.?  How  many  pounds  of  wool  may 
be  obtained  from  a  single  sheep?  What  price  does 
wool  bring  on  the  local  market .?  Describe  the  process 
of  shearing  as  you  have  seen  it  done.  If  you  do  not  have 
sheep  on  the  farm,  perhaps  you  can  go  to  a  near-by 
farm  where  sheep  are  kept  and  make  the  observations 
that  have  been  suggested  in  this  lesson. 

Survey. — Determine  the  number  of  sheep  on  the  farms 
in  your  community  and  classify  them  as  to  the  differ- 
ent breeds  which  are  represented.  Do  farmers  buy 
sheep  to  fatten  them  or  do  they  raise  all  the  lambs  which 
are  fed  for  market  .f*  At  what  age  are  the  lambs 
marketed.''  Find  out  if  possible  what  handicaps  or 
obstacles  the  farmers  meet  in  growing  sheep  in  the 
community?  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  laws  of 
your  state  regarding  the  treatment  of  sheep-killing 
dogs.  Describe  the  actions  of  a  sheep-killing  dog  and 
the  method  which  he  uses  in  killing  sheep.  What  was 
the  total  value  of  products  sold  from  the  sheep  on  your 


SHEEP  265 

farm  last  year  ?  Compare  this  amount  of  money  with 
the  amount  received  from  the  sale  of  other  animal 
products. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Types  of  Sheep.— There  are  two  main  types  of 
sheep:  the  mutton  type  and  the  wool  type.  It  is 
true  that  the  mutton  type  produces  wool  and  the 
wool  type  produces  mutton,  but  the  two  types  are 
distinct  inasmuch  as  each  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
production  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  products. 
The  mutton  type  is  very  blocky  and  plump,  having  a 
short  compact  body  that  is  well  filled  out,  while  the 
wool  type  is  less  compact,  more  angular,  and  possesses 
an  abundance  of  fine  long  wool.  In  general,  we  may 
say  that  there  is  the  same  diff^erence  in  form  between 
the  two  types  as  there  is  between  the  beef  cow  and  the 
dairy  cow. 

Breeds. — There  are  so  many  different  breeds  of  sheep 
that  we  shall  not  attempt  to  distinguish  them  in  this 
short  lesson.  Some  of  the  points  which  mark  the 
breeds  are:  kind  of  wool,  covering  on  the  face  and  legs, 
color  of  the  face,  and  the  general  form  of  the  body. 
The  most  important  wool  breeds  are  the  Merino  and  the 
Rambouillet,  while  the  most  important  mutton  breeds 
are  the  Shropshire,  Southdown,  Hampshire,  and 
Oxford.  Most  of  the  breeds  were  originally  bred 
and  improved  in  England.  Some  other  breeds  of  sheep 
are  the  Cheviot,  Leicester,  Dorset  Horn,  and  Tunis. 


266  FARM   PROJECTS 

A  breed  that  is  much  newer  or  younger  than  those 
mentioned  is  the  Corriedale,  a  cross  between  the  two 
types  of  sheep.  It  was  first  bred  in  New  Zealand  and 
is  being  improved  there. 

Earmarks  of  the  Breeds. — While  it  is  not  possible  to 
dwell  at  length  upon  the  many  earmarks  of  the  breeds 
of  sheep,  a  few  of  the  more  important  distinguishing 
marks  among  the  common  breeds  will  be  listed. 

The  Southdown:  Neat  in  form;  low,  blocky,  and 
compact.  Face  grey  or  light  brown,  uncovered  below 
the  eyes.  The  wool  covers  the  legs  above  the  knees. 
Noted  for  the  neatness  of  body  form. 

Shropshire:  Heavy,  blocky,  plump  appearance.  Face 
covered  with  wool,  legs  covered  to  the  pasterns.  Dark 
brown  nose.    A  very  popular  mutton  breed. 

Hampshire:  More  rangy  than  the  first  two  men- 
tioned. Face  covered  to  a  line  just  below  the  eyes. 
Face  and  legs  very  dark  brown  in  color. 

Oxford:  Larger  than  the  other  breeds.  Face  brown 
and  uncovered  below  the  eyes. 

Merino:  Face  and  legs  covered  with  wool.  Great 
folds  and  wrinkles  of  very  fine  long  wool  covering  the 
entire  body.     Rather  angular  in  form. 

Rambouillet:  Larger  than  the  Merino.  Face  white, 
covered  to  the  nose.  Wrinkles  confined  to  the  neck 
and  shoulders. 

Where  Sheep  Are  Raised. — Sheep  have  been  a  part  of 
the  wealth  of  nations  since  before  the  time  of  Abraham 
and  are  now  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  world  south  of 


SHEEP 


267 


268  FARM   PROJECTS 

the  latitude  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United 
States.  The  regions  of  greatest  importance  in  the 
sheep  industry  are  Great  Britain,  Austraha,  southern 
Europe,  and  South  America.  Sheep  are  distributed 
through  all  parts  of  the  United  States  in  rather  large 
numbers,  but  the  number  per  square  mile  is  not  so 
large  as  the  number  in  other  countries  mentioned. 

Habits. — Sheep  flock  together  by  nature  and  follow 
their  leader,  which  makes  it  possible  to  herd  them  in 
large  flocks.  Flocks  of  two  thousand  or  more  are  to 
be  found  on  the  grazing  lands  of  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States.  Sheep  are  naturally  good  feeders 
and  good  foragers,  which  means  that  they  will  clean 
up  a  field  in  good  shape  and  will  yield  a  profit  by  grazing 
on  land  which  would  otherwise  be  unfit  for  use.  Sheep 
crop  the  grass  more  closely  than  do  cattle  or  horses, 
and  will  eat  many  weeds  which  are  not  relished  by 
other  animals.  Farmers  in  the  corn  belt  frequently 
use  sheep  in  the  corn  field  before  husking  and  some- 
times leave  them  in  the  field  to  fatten  on  the  corn. 

Importance  of  Wool. — The  importance  of  wool  pro- 
duction for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  woolen  goods, 
especially  clothing,  is  often  underestimated.  The  in- 
come from  wool  is  usually  about  one  third  the  total 
amount  of  income  from  the  flock.  More  attention 
will  be  given  to  wool  production  as  the  population 
increases  and  the  demand  for  woolen  goods  increases. 
Farmers  in  the  sections  where  sheep  raising  is  not  the 
main  industry  frequently  "pool"  their  wool;  that  is. 


SHEEP  269 

they  put  all  the  wool  produced  in  one  community 
together  and  sell  it  in  a  large  lot  in  order  to  get  the 
best  prices  for  it. 

A  single  sheep  will  produce  from  six  to  forty  pounds 
of  wool,  depending  upon  the  breed  of  the  sheep  and 
the  condition  in  which  it  is  kept.  The  average  yield 
is  perhaps  below  ten  pounds  per  head  in  the  United 
States,  but  exceptional  yields  have  reached  forty 
pounds.  The  wool  breeds  yield  more  wool  per  head 
than  the  mutton  breeds.  The  long  wool  is  known  as 
combing  wool  and  the  short  wool  as  clothing  wool. 

Shearing. — Sheep  are  usually  sheared  in  April  or 
May  in  the  United  States,  though  they  may  be  sheared 
earlier  than  this  when  larger  flocks  are  changed  from 
winter  quarters  to  the  grazing  grounds.  It  is  better 
for  the  sheep  if  the  shearing  is  done  after  the  weather 
has  begun  to  grow  warm  in  the  spring  and  the  wool  is 
then  in  better  condition  as  it  has  begun  to  "liven  up." 
The  power  machine  is  used  in  most  instances  for  shear- 
ing sheep.  One  who  is  not  an  expert  can  do  a  neater 
job  and  can  do  it  faster  with  the  power  machine  than 
with  the  hand  shears.  It  is  necessary  to  exercise  great 
care  not  to  cut  the  body  and  at  the  same  time  to  get 
close  enough  to  the  skin  to  get  all  the  wool  the  first 
time  the  shears  are  run  over  the  body.  The  wool  from 
a  single  sheep  is  called  a  fleece  and  is  tied  in  a  bundle 
with  the  flesh  side  outward.  The  bundles  are  then 
placed  in  large  sacks  and  stored  until  time  to  take 
them  to  market. 


270  FARM  PROJECTS 

Care  of  the  Flock. — It  is  frequently  said  that  sheep 
require  less  care  than  other  farm  animals,  but  if  this  is 
true,  it  is  also  true  that  they  respond  very  readily  to 
good  care.  The  fact  that  they  are  good  foragers  makes 
it  possible  to  turn  the  flock  into  wood  pastures,  corn 
fields,  meadows,  or  grazing  lands  and  leave  them  with 
little  further  attention  as  long  as  they  have  access  to 
water  and  salt.  On  the  western  ranges  one  man  will 
herd  as  many  as  two  thousand  head  of  sheep  without 
the  help  of  anyone  except  a  partner  who  takes  care  of 
the  camp  and  does  the  cooking.  Did  you  ever  wish 
to  go  west  and  become  a  sheep  herder  and  ride  up  and 
down  the  valleys.?  Many  a  young  man  has  had  the 
experience  of  going  to  the  western  ranch  to  herd  sheep 
only  to  find  it  a  very  monotonous  kind  of  work.  In 
the  corn  belt,  sheep  are  not  herded  at  all,  but  kept  in 
small  pastures  and  fed  in  part  on  grain  and  hay.  They 
are  provided  with  good  shelter  and  much  care  is  given 
to  them,  especially  at  the  lambing  period,  as  the  weather 
at  this  time  of  year  is  likely  to  be  very  disagreeable. 

Feeding  Hints. — More  attention  is  being  given  to 
sheep  feeding  than  was  formerly  given,  because  the 
grazing  lands  are  less  extensive.  Farmers  are  not  only 
raising  lambs  and  feeding  them  for  market,  but  they 
are  shipping  sheep  from  the  western  ranches  and 
"finishing"  them  on  the  grain  that  is  produced  on  the 
farms  of  the  Middle  West.  These  feeders,  as  the  sheep 
are  called,  may  be  found  on  the  market  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter  just  when  the  grain  farmer  is  ready  to 


SHEEP  271 

feed.  Much  care  is  necessary  in  starting  the  sheep  on 
a  grain  ration  as  they  are  accustomed  to  the  pasture 
only.  Some  hay  or  other  roughage  is  usually  fed  at  first 
and  the  grain  is  gradually  added  to  the  ration.  The 
grain  is  fed  from  troughs  built  low,  and  the  hay  is  fed 
from  racks.  Sheep  are  very  particular  about  having 
their  food  clean  and  much  of  the  food  will  be  wasted  if  the 
farmer  is  careless  and  allows  the  troughs  to  become  dirty. 
Sheep  are  ruminants  like  cows;  that  is,  they  chew  the 
cud,  which  means  that  they  have  four  stomachs  and 
re-chew  the  food  after  taking  it  into  the  first  or  large 
stomach.  Animals  with  stomachs  such  as  sheep  and 
cows  can  make  use  of  large  quantities  of  rough  feed. 
Sheep  like  almost  any  kind  of  hay  or  roughage,  but 
alfalfa  and  clover  make  especially  good  hay  for  them 
because  these  are  very  good  for  growth.  Corn  silage 
may  be  fed  to  sheep  with  good  results  if  the  silage  is 
of  very  good  quality.  When  hay  and  grain  are  fed 
for  fattening  purposes,  one  pound  of  grain  may  be 
fed  to  two  pounds  of  hay  at  the  beginning  of  the  feed- 
ing period  and  the  grain  may  be  increased  until  twice 
as  much  grain  as  hay  is  fed  at  the  close  of  the  fattening 
period.  Sheep  seem  to  make  better  use  of  corn  when 
it  is  fed  as  shelled  corn  than  when  it  is  fed  as  ground 
feed. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Name  the  breeds  of  sheep  that  you  have  seen  and  describe 
the  differences. 

2.  Describe  the  two  general  types  of  sheep. 


272  FARM  PROJECTS 

3.  Mark  the  farms  on  the  community  map  where  sheep  are 
raised. 

4.  Ewes  in  a  feed  lot  ate  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds  of  grain 
and  the  same  amount  of  alfalfa  in  ninety  days,  and  gained  twenty- 
seven  pounds  each.  How  much  feed  was  required  per  pound  of 
gain  ?     How  much  feed  was  eaten  per  day  ? 

5.  What  was  the  total  wool  production  in  your  school  com- 
munity last  year? 

6.  Lambs  weighing  ninety-five  pounds  each  were  fed  ninety- 
eight  days  and  gained  27.5  pounds  each.  What  was  the  gain  per 
day.?  If  they  required  six  pounds  of  grain  and  eight  pounds  of 
clover  hay  for  each  pound  of  gain,  how  much  of  each  was  consumed 
daily.? 

7.  Estimate  the  cost  of  feeding  100  head  of  sheep  ninety  days, 
using  such  grain  and  hay  as  you  have  on  your  farm  and  figuring 
the  feed  at  current  prices. 

8.  What  would  be  the  value  of  the  wool  yield  from  twenty  head 
of  ewes,  averaging  8  pounds  per  fleece,  at  the  current  price  for 
wool  ? 

9.  When  do  the  sheep  become  too  old  to  be  profitable  on  the 
farm.?     What  condition  indicates  old  age  in  sheep.? 


XIII 
RAISING  A   PET  LAMB 

Home  Work 

Perhaps  you  can  secure  an  orphan  lamb  for  a  pet. 
Besides  the  fun  of  raising  it,  there  may  be  much 
profit  to  be  gained.  Possibly  if  the  lamb  is  a  ewe, 
you  will  wish  to  keep  it  and  start  a  flock  of  your  own. 
The  first  pet  that  one  of  the  authors  ever  owned  was  a 
lamb  rescued  from  a  cold  spring  rain  after  it  had  been 
left  alone  by  its  mother.  It  proved  to  be  the  source 
of  a  new  interest  in  animals. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Birth. — Lambs  are  usually  born  in  the  spring  when 
the  weather  is  likely  to  be  changeable,  and  when  cold 
wet  nights  are  frequent.  Ewes  should  be  given  sep- 
arate pens  at  lambing  time  if  possible.  It  will  not  be 
strange  if  some  of  the  lambs  seem  to  be  helpless  when 
born.  The  good  shepherd  stays  near  the  ewes  at  lamb- 
ing time  in  order  to  help  the  little  creatures  when  they 
are  unable  to  help  themselves.  The  pen  should  be 
warm  and  well  protected  from  the  weather,  as  lambs 
become  chilled  very  easily.     If  the  day  is  cold,  it  may 

273 


274  FARM   PROJECTS 

be  a  good  plan  to  wrap  the  newly  born  lamb  in  a  warm 
cloth.  The  first  meal  is  important,  and  it  will  be  well 
to  help  the  baby  lamb  in  its  first  eff^orts.  The  young 
lamb  appears  as  a  wabbly  creature  with  more  legs 
than  body,  and  one  wonders  how  it  will  ever  fill  out 
into  the  symmetrical,  playful  suckling  which  it  is  soon 
to  become. 

The  Mother  Knows  Her  Own. — When  several  lambs 
are  in  one  lot,  they  sometimes  get  mixed  and  the 
mother  loses  her  lamb  and  refuses  to  claim  it.  One 
wonders  how  the  mother  knows  her  own  when  there 
are  hundreds  of  sheep  with  their  lambs  in  one  flock. 
The  ewe  knows  her  lamb  at  first  through  the  sense  of 
smell,  and  after  a  while  she  learns  to  know  it  by  sight. 
If  she  refuses  to  claim  it,  draw  some  of  her  milk  and 
smear  it  on  the  lamb  and  she  will  soon  claim  it  as  her 
own. 

Sometimes  ewes  disown  their  lambs  several  days 
after  birth  for  no  apparent  reason.  It  is  then  necessary 
to  hold  the  mother  while  the  lamb  sucks,  and  even  this 
does  not  always  effect  a  reconciliation  between  mother 
and  Iamb.  If  the  lamb  is  strong,  it  will  usually  take 
care  of  itself  after  a  few  days,  unless  the  mother 
becomes  actually  vicious  in  her  efforts  to  keep  it  from 
sucking.  In  any  case,  do  not  neglect  a  lamb,  but 
make  sure  that  it  is  getting  the  required  amount  of 
food. 

The  Orphan. — A  lamb  may  become  an  orphan 
through    the    death    of   the    mother,    or   because    the 


I 


• 


RAISING  A  PET  LAMB  275 

mother  positively  disowns  it,  or  because  the  mother 
does  not  furnish  enough  milk.  The  last  reason  is 
sometimes  the  case  when  there  are  twins  or  triplets. 
If  there  is  another  ewe  which  can  be  made  to  claim 
the  orphan,  this  is  the  best  way  to  dispose  of  it.  If 
a  foster  mother  cannot  be  found,  the  next  thing  to 
do  is  to  prepare  a  bottle  with  a  nipple  and  feed  the 
orphan  warm,  fresh  cow's  milk.  The  lamb  should  be 
fed  often  and  given  only  a  small  amount  at  a  time, 
about  a  tablespoonful  at  a  feeding.  Children  are 
apt  to  overfeed  in  their  anxiety  to  give  the  helpless 
creature  enough  to  start  its  growth.  A  pupil  in  one 
of  the  author's  classes  was  given  a  colt  to  raise,  as  the 
mother  had  died  at  the  birth  of  the  colt.  Too  much 
milk  was  given  during  the  first  twelve  hours.  The 
boy  did  not  get  up  to  feed  the  colt  during  the  night, 
and  the  next  morning  found  it  dead  in  the  stall. 
Remember  that  Nature  is  very  painstaking  in  feeding 
the  young.  After  a  few  days  the  lamb  will  be  eager 
for  the  bottle. 

Grain  for  the  Lamb. — Lambs  will  begin  to  eat  a 
little  grain  when  two  weeks  old,  and  may  be  induced 
to  nibble  at  such  food  even  before  this  time.  Especially 
is  this  true  of  the  pet  lamb  after  it  becomes  accustomed 
to  taking  the  bottle.  A  little  grain  in  the  hand  is  very 
tempting  to  it,  but  one  should  be  careful  not  to  feed 
too  much,  although  you  will  find  that  the  lamb  is  not 
so  likely  to  overload  its  stomach  with  grain  as  it  was 
with  the  milk  the  first  day.     After  a  few  weeks  it  will 


276  FARM   PROJECTS 

be  eating  a  quarter  of  a  pound  a  day.  Crushed  corn, 
wheat  bran,  and  Hnseed  meal  make  a  good  grain 
mixture,  containing  plenty  of  protein  for  growth  as 
well  as  the  required  mineral  matter  which  the  bran 
supplies. 

Hay  and  Grass. — The  young  lambs  enjoy  frolicking 
in  the  yard,  and  soon  begin  to  nibble  the  grass,  liking 
it  so  well  that  they  will  eat  grass  in  preference  to  grain. 
If  they  do  not  get  grass,  it  is  well  to  let  them  have  some 
clover  hay  to  nibble.  Even  if  they  are  allowed  good 
pasture,  some  dry  hay  may  be  given  to  them  in  the 
feed  rack. 

Weaning. — Lambs  need  to  suckle  the  mother  longer 
than  most  other  young,  but  may  be  weaned  at 
the  age  of  four  months.  If  they  are  allowed  to  run 
with  the  mother,  they  will  suckle  longer  than  this, 
but  it  is  injurious  to  the  mother  to  allow  them  to 
suckle  for  a  much  longer  time.  We  must  remember 
that  the  mother  has  had  a  big  strain  on  her  con- 
stitution and  that  she  needs  a  rest.  The  ewes  may 
be  taken  away  from  the  lamb  abruptly,  or  the 
mother  and  lamb  may  be  separated  gradually.  The 
lambs  should  be  on  pasture  at  the  weaning  time. 
Lambs  at  this  time  will  be  eating  about  a  half  pound 
of  grain  daily,  and  the  amount  may  be  gradually 
increased. 

Care  After  Weaning. — The  lambs  should  be  watched 
closely  at  this  time.  Sanitation  and  good  feed  are 
the  key  words  to  successful  management.     The  hot 


RAISING  A  PET  LAMB  277 

weather  of  the  summer  is  hard  on  sheep  and  the 
lambs  will  not  thrive  in  rains  and  muddy  weather. 
Farmers  provide  artificial  shade  and  shelter  for  the 
sheep  during  the  summer.  A  prominent  sheep  breeder 
in  Illinois  makes  a  point  of  having  a  shed  provided  in 
the  pasture  which  can  be  moved  about  to  insure 
sanitation.  With  a  few  lambs,  there  is  very  little 
difficulty  in  providing  such  a  shade. 

Enemies. — Sheep  are  subject  to  attacks  from  a 
number  of  insects,  such  as  lice,  scab  mites,  ticks, 
flies,  and  the  stomach  worm.  Perhaps  the  last  men- 
tioned is  the  most  harmful.  The  stomach  worm  is  a 
slender  worm,  less  than  an  inch  in  length,  which  infests 
the  fourth  stomach  of  the  sheep,  where  it  sucks  the 
blood  from  the  tiny  vessels  on  the  lining  of  the  stomach, 
causing  the  animal  to  become  weak,  and  sometimes 
causing  death.  The  animal  becomes  pale  and  loses 
flesh  very  rapidly.  These  worms  are  picked  up  on 
the  grass  of  the  pastures  where  they  live  upon  the 
grass  until  they  are  taken  into  the  stomach  of  the 
sheep.  Sheep  should  not  be  kept  upon  the  same  pas- 
ture from  year  to  year  if  the  stomach  worm  is  found 
there. 

When  the  sheep  become  infested  with  the  worm,  one 
remedy  is  a  drench  of  gasoline.  This  is  not  a  pleasant 
kind  of  medicine,  so  the  sheep  must  be  held  and 
drenched  with  a  long  necked  bottle,  care  being  taken 
to  prevent  strangulation.  The  drench  is  made  by 
mixing  the  gasoline  with  sweet  milk.     It  should  be 


278  FARM   PROJECTS 

given  in  three  doses  on  as  many  successive  mornings, 
being  given  after  the  sheep  has  been  without  water  or 
food  for  a  half  day.  The  first  dose  for  the  lamb  may 
be  made  by  mixing  one  teaspoonful  of  gasoHne  with 
about  five  ounces  of  sweet  milk;  the  second  and  third 
dose  may  be  increased  to  a  tablespoonful  of  gasoline 
and  five  ounces  of  milk. 

At  best  such  remedies  furnish  only  a  partial  relief 
and  the  source  of  the  worms  must  be  removed,  or 
more  worms  will  reach  the  stomach.  The  danger  from 
the  stomach  worm  is  only  another  warning  to  young 
people  to  keep  on  the  watch  for  any  trouble  that  may 
arise  in  the  flock.  When  any  disease  or  other  disorder 
arises,  consult  a  veterinarian  or  some  one  who  can 
help  you  to  eliminate  it.  Do  not  become  discouraged, 
but  when  disorders  arise,  make  every  possible  effort 
to  learn  the  cause  and  the  effect.  Perhaps  you  will 
be  able  to  discover  a  means  of  preventing  some  of 
the  disorders. 

Marketing. — ^Lambs  may  be  marketed  at  different 
ages.  Perhaps  the  boys  who  have  raised  lambs  will 
wish  to  market  them  as  early  as  possible  in  order 
to  get  early  money  returns.  The  lambs  should  be 
ready  to  market  at  weaning  time  or  soon  thereafter. 
At  this  time  they  should  be  in  good  condition,  as 
choice  meat  comes  from  the  lambs  marketed  at  this 
time.  If  the  lambs  are  sold  at  four  months  of  age, 
there  is  much  less  risk  to  run  than  if  they  are  kept 
longer. 


RAISING  A  PET  LAMB  279 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Why  should  newly  born  lambs  have  special  care? 

2.  How  would  you  treat  a  lamb  which  was  chilled  at  birth  ? 

3.  Tell  how  to  start  an  orphan  lamb  on  food. 

4.  How  can  the  mother  be  persuaded  to  own  a  lamb  which  she 
has  disowned? 

5.  Make  up  rations  for  feeding  lambs  at  the  various  periods  of 
their  lives. 

6.  Tell  how  to  dock  lambs. 

7.  How  may  lambs  be  marketed? 

8.  At  what  season  are  lambs  usually  born? 

9.  If  you  have  a  pet  lamb,  keep  a  record  of  the  amount  of  milk 
and  other  food  which  you  feed  it.  Determine  the  cost  of  raising 
the  lamb  and  the  profit  which  it  yields. 

10.    Does  the  lamb  have  a  full  set  of  temporary  teeth  at  birth? 
Does  it  have  teeth  in  both  jaws? 


XIV 
RAISING  A  LITTER   OF   PIGS 

Class  and  Home  Work 

The  pig  clubs  of  the  United  States  have  been  among 
the  most  popular  of  all  clubs  because  boys  and  girls 
like  to  raise  pigs.  The  pig  is  a  favorite  because  it 
grows  into  money  rapidly  and  responds  quickly  to 
good  care  and  feeding.  The  nation's  need  for  pork 
and  fats  during  the  past  few  years,  as  we  have 
pointed  out,  has  increased  pig  raising.  The  club 
boys  and  girls  have  been  eager  to  do  their  share 
toward  increasing  the  production  of  the  necessary  food 
products. 

It  will  be  well  for  the  class  to  form  themselves  into 
a  live-stock  club  unless  the  members  already  belong  to 
a  club.  If  it  is  thought  best  not  to  form  a  club,  each 
boy  and  girl  may  arrange  to  raise  some  pigs  through 
the  year  without  the  aid  of  a  club  leader.  If  possible, 
arrange  with  your  father  to  care  for  a  gilt  and  her 
litter  until  the  pigs  are  ready  for  market.  At  least 
keep  a  watch  over  the  growth  of  the  pigs  and  keep  such 
records  as  are  possible.  The  following  suggestions  are 
meant  to  help  you  and  your  father  in  getting  the  best 
results. 

280 


RAISING  A  LITTER  OF   PIGS 


281 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Care  and  Feed. — The  bulk  of  the  pig  crop  is  farrowed 
in  the  spring  when  the  first  warm  days  come  and  the 
remainder  are  born  in  the  fall.  We  will  assume  that  the 
little  pigs  are  born  in   the   spring — March  or  April. 


Fig.  60.   One  OF  Loyd's  HERD.    It  weighed  50  pounds  when  it  was 

50  DAYS  OLD. 

When  the  pigs  are  young  the  mother  should  have 
good  care  and  feed,  and  be  allowed  to  run  in  a  lot  that 
is  dry  and  clean.  It  is  sometimes  supposed  that  pigs 
prefer  muddy,  filthy  places,  but  this  is  not  true,  for 
they  much  prefer  sanitary  quarters  and  will  do  better 


282  FARM  PROJECTS 

if  they  do  not  have  to  wade  through  mud  and  eat 
their  corn  in  filthy  feed  lots.  A  house  that  is  warm 
and  comfortable  will  be  appreciated  by  the  sows. 
They  should  be  bedded  frequently  with  straw. 

Some  sort  of  green  food  is  necessary  to  take  the 
place  of  pasture  which  is  not  available.  Roots,  alfalfa, 
or  pumpkins  make  good  succulent  or  green  feed.  The 
alfalfa  is  rich  in  bone  and  muscle  building  materials. 
The  grain  ration  may  consist  of  middlings,  corn,  and 
ground  oats,  with  a  little  tankage  added  to  the  ration. 
Mineral  matter  is  also  necessary  in  large  amounts. 
The  story  of  how  one  school  boy  beat  his  father  in 
raising  pigs  will  illustrate  the  importance  of  the  proper 
feed  for  the  mother  and  the  litter. 

The  father  and  son  chose  two  gilts  each,  all  from  the 
same  litter.  The  father  fed  on  corn  and  slop  made 
from  the  kitchen  refuse  with  a  small  amount  of  shorts 
added.  The  son  built  a  self-feeder  with  several  com- 
partments; in  one  he  put  corn,  in  another  ground 
oats,  and  in  the  others,  tankage,  limestone,  rock  phos- 
phate, and  a  mixture  of  slack  coal  and  salt.  Four 
litters  of  pigs  were  born  in  April.  The  mothers  had 
had  the  freedom  of  a  blue  grass  pasture  and  secured 
such  green  food  as  was  available  in  the  early  spring. 
The  son  found  himself  the  owner  of  fourteen  well- 
formed,  strong-boned  pigs  without  a  single  runt 
among  them.  The  father  saved  thirteen  pigs  from 
his  two  gilts,  but  had  three  runts  in  the  lot.  The 
father's  gilts  were  fat  at  farrowing  time  because  they 


RAISING  A  LITTER  OF   PIGS  283 

had  had  all  the  corn  they  wanted.  The  son's  gilts 
were  not  fat,  but  were  in  good  condition  and  were 
well  grown.  The  author  saw  these  four  litters  when 
they  were  four  weeks  old  and  it  was  not  easy  to  believe 
that  they  were  all  born  within  a  two-day  period.  The 
son's  pigs  were  far  ahead  of  the  father's  in  bone  devel- 
opment, in  uniformity,  and  in  growth.  The  friendly 
contest  between  father  and  son  was  a  good  lesson  to 
both  and  the  father  adopted  the  ration  which  the  son 
and  his  teacher  had  worked  out.  He  was  so  pleased 
with  the  boy's  success  that  he  gave  him  the  two  gilts 
with  their  fine  litters  and  arranged  for  him  to  start  a 
bank  account  for  the  purpose  of  paying  his  expenses 
through  high  school  and  some  day  through  the  College 
of  Agriculture. 

Feeding  the  Mother. — For  the  first  three  or  four 
weeks  the  food  of  the  pigs  consists  solely  of  the  mother's 
milk.  During  this  time  the  mother  is  essentially  a 
milk-producing  machine  and  should  be  fed  as  such. 
Milk  of  sows  is  richer  in  food  solids,  particularly  fats 
and  casein,  than  cow's  milk.  The  sow  that  furnishes 
milk  for  an  average-sized  litter  must  produce  at  least 
one  pound  of  solids  in  her  milk  each  day.  Corn  is  too 
fattening  and  does  not  contain  enough  protein  to  make 
it  a  good  milk  producer.  Wheat  bran,  wheat  mid- 
dlings, skim  milk,  ground  oats,  with  clover  or  alfalfa 
pasture,  make  an  excellent  combination  for  producing 
milk.  The  sow  should  be  fed  a  slop  made  of  mid- 
dlings or  bran,  and  brought  to  a  full  ration  gradually. 


284 


FARM   PROJECTS 


Feeding  the  Pigs. — The  Httle  pigs  will  begin  to  eat 
with  the  mother  when  they  are  about  three  weeks  old. 
A  trough  should  be  provided  in  a  pen  where  the  sow 
cannot  reach  it,  but  where  the  pigs  can  get  to  it  easily. 


Fig.  61.  A  high  school  boy  and  a  part  of  his  herd.  A  part  of  his  laboratory 
WORK  IN  Agriculture  is  growing  hogs  under  the  supervision  of  his 
teacher. 


A  little  skim  milk  or  slop  made  from  skim  milk  and 
bran  or  shorts  should  be  put  into  this  trough  when  the 
sow  is  fed.  Do  not  give  the  pigs  more  than  they  will 
eat  at  a  time.  The  trough  should  be  kept  clean  and 
not  allowed  to  become  sour  from  stale  feed,  as  stale 


RAISING  A  LITTER  OF   PIGS  285 

and  sour  slops  will  cause  digestive  disorders  in  the 
young  pigs.  A  little  shelled  corn  should  be  added  to 
the  ration  as  soon  as  the  pigs  will  eat  it. 

Weaning. — Pigs  which  have  had  some  feed,  such  as 
that  mentioned,  during  the  suckling  period,  will  be 
in  good  condition  for  weaning  at  the  age  of  eight  or 
nine  weeks.  Some  farmers  wean  at  an  earlier  period, 
but  the  pigs  do  not  thrive  so  well.  If  they  run  with 
the  sow  for  a  much  longer  period,  the  sow  will  not  be 
in  good  condition  to  produce  another  litter  in  the  fall. 

The  methods  of  feeding  pigs  after  weaning  time  will 
vary  according  to  the  purpose  in  the  mind  of  the 
feeder.  Pigs  that  are  to  be  fattened  for  the  market 
will  require  different  feeds  than  those  that  are  to  be 
raised  for  breeding  purposes.  We  will  assume  that 
the  litter  in  question  is  to  be  marketed  for  pork. 

The  first  problem  of  the  feeder  is  to  make  the  pig 
grow,  producing  a  good  framework  of  body  on  which 
to  put  fat  later  in  the  season.  Growing  pigs  need 
plenty  of  mineral  substance  and  protein.  One  hog 
breeder  recommends  for  the  mineral  substance  a  mix- 
ture of  a  half  bushel  of  slack  coal,  a  peck  of  slacked 
lime,  and  five  pounds  of  salt.  This  should  be  placed 
in  a  box  where  the  pigs  can  get  it.  Then,  too,  feeds 
which  contain  much  mineral  matter  should  be  fed. 
Wheat  and  wheat  bran  contain  much  mineral  matter, 
but  corn  does  not  contain  sufficient  mineral  matter. 
Alfalfa  and  clover  pasture  are  excellent  feeds  for  grow- 
ing pigs. 


286  FARM   PROJECTS 

Rations  suggested  for  growing  pigs  after  weaning  are  :* 

1.  Corn I       part      3.    Corn  full  feed 

Skim  milk 2-4  parts  Tankage   .4  lb.   per  pig 

2.  Corn 4-6  parts  daily. 

Ground  oats  or   mid-  4.    Corn,  tankage,  and  mid- 
dlings  2      parts  dlings  in  self-feeder. 

Tankage i      part 

Pigs  should  be  ready  for  market  at  from  six  to  eight 
months  of  age.  At  this  time  they  will  weigh  from  two 
hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds  if  they  have  been 
properly  fed.  No  animal  is  quite  so  efficient  in  the 
process  of  making  meat  from  grain  as  is  the  pig.  The 
exact  rations  for  fattening  your  pigs  will  depend  upon 
the  feeds  which  you  have  on  hand  or  which  you  can 
get.  A  few  suggestions  are  made  here  to  guide  boys 
and  girls  in  feeding  the  pigs  for  market. 

Corn  should  never  be  fed  as  the  only  feed  for  hogs 
even  during  the  fattening  period,  as  the  mineral  matter 
which  hogs  get  from  corn  is  not  sufficient  and  corn  is 
too  low  in  protein  to  be  an  all-around  feed.  If  possible, 
keep  the  hogs  on  pasture,  alfalfa  and  clover  being 
excellent  pasture.  Rape  pasture  is  considered  good 
succulent  feed  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs.  The 
clover  and  alfalfa  are  excellent  supplements  to  corn  as 
they  balance  the  ration.  A  ration  of  corn,  ground 
oats,  and  tankage  will  give  good  results  in  the  fatten- 
ing pen.  Corn  and  tankage  have  given  economical 
results  when  fed  together  and  if  these  feeds  are  put  in 

*Pig  Club  Manual. — "Extension  Circular  32,"  University  of  Illinois. 


RAISING  A  LITTER  OF   PIGS  287 

the  self-feeder,  the  hog  will  balance  his  own  ration  and 
make  economical  gains.  Pigs  weighing  from  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  will  consume 
about  five  pounds  of  grain  per  day  and  should  gain  a 
little  more  than  one  pound  a  day.  Larger  hogs  require 
a  little  more  feed  per  pound  of  gain. 

Vaccination.  —  Pigs  should  be  vaccinated  against 
cholera.  This  disease  is  among  the  worst  of  the  animal 
diseases  as  it  claims  thousands  of  hogs  each  year.  Vac- 
cination has  proved  an  effectual  check  against  the  dis- 
ease and  a  competent  veterinarian  should  be  gotten  to 
do  the  work. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  breeds  of  hogs  are  kept  on  your  farm  ? 

2.  What  advantage  is  there  in  having  pigs  born  in  the  spring 
rather  than  in  the  fall? 

3.  Give  some  rules  for  feeding  the  sow  before  the  pigs  are 
weaned. 

4.  Why  is  it  a  wrong  practice  to  feed  corn  to  hogs  without  other 
feeds  ? 

5.  When  should  pigs  be  weaned?  How  does  the  weaning  age 
compare  with  that  of  lambs?  calves?  colts? 

6.  At  what  age  does  your  father  usually  market  his  hogs  ?  How 
much  do  they  weigh? 

7.  Estimate  the  amount  of  feed  which  your  father  feeds  to  each 
hog  from  the  time  the  pig  is  weaned  until  marketing  time?  Cal- 
culate the  amount  of  grain  fed  per  pound  of  gain  made. 

8.  When  hogs  are  selling  at  16  cents  per  pound,  how  much  will 
18  head  of  hogs  averaging  260  pounds  be  worth?  If  the  hogs 
"dressed  out"  70%,  what  would  the  dressed  carcass  have  to  sell 
for  to  bring  as  much  money  as  the  hogs  were  worth  on  foot  ? 


■    XV 
SOME  GROUPS  OF  INSECTS 

Home  Work 

Collect  insects  representing  all  the  classes  listed 
below.  The  specimens  should  be  mounted  on  card- 
board. If  you  wish  to  preserve  the  larvae,  small 
bottles  should  be  purchased  at  the  drug  store.  Formal- 
dehyde or  alcohol  may  be  used  to  preserve  the  larvae. 

Insects  may  be  collected  by  using  a  sack  made  of 
mosquito  netting  and  fastened  to  a  wire  hoop  to  which 
a  long  pole  is  attached. 

Observe  the  insects  at  work  to  see  how  they  eat  their 
food. 

The  following  insects  may  be  collected: 

1.  Butterflies 

2.  Houseflies 

3.  Chinch  bugs 

4.  Potato  beetles 

5.  Grasshoppers 

6.  Honeybees 

The  insects  are  representative  of  the  six  classes 
which  will  be  described  in  the  following  pages. 

Make  a  table  showing  the  main  facts  regarding  these 
insects,  as  follows: 

288 


SOME  GROUPS  OF  INSECTS 


289 


Class 


Number  of 
Wings 


Character 
OF  Wings 


Feeding 
Habit 

Where 
Found 



Crops 
Damaged 


In  what  respect  are  all  insects  alike?  How  many 
brilliantly  colored  insects  can  you  find  ?  What  reason 
can  you  suggest  for  this  coloring?  Study  the  moth 
and  the  butterfly.  The  cabbage  butterfly  and  the 
cutworm  moth  are  good  specimens  for  this  study. 
How  do  moths  differ  from  butterflies  with  regard  to 

1 .  Feelers  ? 

2.  Position  of  wings  when  at  rest  ? 

3.  Shape  of body? 

4.  Time  of  d  ay  when  they  fly  ? 

5.  General  color  scheme  ? 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

What  Is  an  Insect? — Inasmuch  as  insects  destroy 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  crops  each  year,  we  should 
learn  more  about  them  and  their  methods  of  doing 
damage.  An  insect  is  a  little  animal,  so  called  because 
its  body  is  made  up  of  sections.  The  word  "insect" 
is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  "insectare"  which  means 
to  cut  into  parts.  Insects  are  alike  in  some  respects. 
All  insects  have  six  legs  and  their  bodies  are  divided 
into    three    parts:  the    head,    the    thorax,    and    the 


290  FARM   PROJECTS 

abdomen.  There  are  other  pecuHarities  of  insects 
which  should  be  noted  by  observation. 

Groups  of  Insects. — Insects  may  be  classified  or 
put  into  many  different  groups.  They  may  be  grouped 
according  to  their  eating  habits  into  two  groups:  (i) 
those  that  chew  the  food;  and  (2)  those  that  suck  the 
food.  More  will  be  said  about  these  two  classes  in 
Chapter  XVI.  Again,  insects  may  be  classified  accord- 
ing to  their  relation  to  man  as  (i)  beneficial  and  (2) 
harmful.  The  scientist  has  found  that  insects  which 
have  similar  wings  have  similar  habits,  so  he  arranges 
all  insects  into  great  groups  on  the  basis  of  their  wing 
structure.  Before  making  any  study  of  individual  in- 
sects, we  should  study  the  main  groups  as  the  scientist 
arranges  them.  Not  all  the  groups  of  insects  will  be 
mentioned  here,  but  only  the  six  which  include  insects 
of  great  economic  importance  to  the  farmer. 

Some  insects  have  straight  wings  and  form  the  group 
called  (i)  straight-winged.  Such  insects  usually  are 
able  to  make  a  noise  with  their  wings.  The  grass- 
hopper is  an  example.  Every  boy  and  girl  is  familiar 
with  butterflies  and  moths  and  knows  that  the  wings 
are  covered  with  a  powdery  substance  which  comes 
off  very  easily.  This  substance  is  made  up  of  little 
scales;  hence  these  insects  form  the  group  called 
(2)  scaly-winged.  The  house  fly  and  other  flies  have 
two  wings  and  so  are  called  (3)  two-winged.  A  fourth 
group  of  insects  is  made  up  of  the  bugs  which  have 
wings  only  partially  developed.     The  chinch  bug  and 


SOME  GROUPS  OF   INSECTS  291 

bedbug  are  examples.  The  group  is  called  the  (4)  half- 
winged  insects.  The  members  of  another  group  have 
wings  which  are  very  thin  and  film-like,  the  wings 
being  like  silk  gauze.  These  insects  are  called  (5) 
membrane-winged.  Bees  are  good  examples.  The  last 
group  is  perhaps  the  most  commonly  known  of  all 
the  insects.  The  insects  of  this  group  have  hard 
shell-like  wings,  and  are  called  hard-shelled  or  (6) 
sheath-winged  insects.  The  potato  beetle  and  May 
beetle  are  good  illustrations  of  this  group. 

The  Scientific  Names. — The  scientist  does  not  speak 
of  straight-winged  and  scaly-winged  insects,  but  gives 
the  groups  Latin  names.  The  system  of  building  up  these 
Latin  names  is  based  upon  a  word,  "ptera,"  meaning 
wing.  This  word  is  used  in  all  the  names.  The  Latin  pre- 
fix added  to  it  usually  describes  the  wings.  The  prefix 
meaning  half  is  "hemi, "  so  the  word  meaning  half- 
winged  is  **Hemiptera."  "Di"  signifies  two,  and 
*'Diptera"  is  the  name  given  to  two-winged  insects. 
"Coleus"  means  sheath  or  shell,  thus  "Coleoptera" 
is  the  name  given  to  beetles  or  insects  with  hard,  sheath- 
like wings.  In  like  manner,  the  other  words  are  made 
up,  so  the  list  of  the  six  most  important  groups  appears 
as  follows: 

Group  Classification  Representatives 

Straight-winged  Orthoptera  Grasshoppers  and  Locusts 

Scaly-%vinged  Lepidoptera  Butterflies  and  Moths 

Two-winged  Diptera  Flies 

Half-winged  Hemiptera  Bugs  and  Lice 

Memhrane-winged  Hymenoptera  Bees 

Sheath-winged  Coleoptcra  Beetles 


292  FARM   PROJECTS 

Importance  of  Knowing  the  Classes. — If  one  knows  the 
class  to  which  an  insect  belongs,  he  may  determine  the 
life  history  and  habits  of  the  insect,  and  will  be 
able  to  suggest  methods  for  its  control.  All  insects  go 
through  certain  changes,  and  their  "life  cycles"  will 
be  very  interesting  and  very  important  to  the  farmer 
who  wishes  to  control  the  insects.  For  instance,  the 
butterfly  lays  its  eggs  on  some  food  plant,  preferably 
the  cabbage  plant.  The  egg  hatches  into  a  small  larva 
or  worm,  and  when  this  larva  is  full  grown  it  forms  a 
shell-like  structure  about  itself  and  goes  into  what  we 
call  the  resting  stage  or  pupa  stage.  This  pupa  does 
not  hatch  in  the  form  it  had  when  it  went  into  its 
resting  stage,  but  after  a  while  it  comes  out  as  a  full- 
grown,  beautifully-colored  butterfly.  It  is  very  evi- 
dent from  this,  then,  that  the  pupal  stage,  or  the 
so-called  resting  stage,  was  not  a  resting  stage  at  all, 
for  the  insect  must  have  been  very  active  in  order  to 
change  form  and  dress  in  the  two  weeks'  time  allowed 
it  by  nature. 

Insects  which  have  a  complete  life  history  similar  to 
this  one  may  be  very  easily  controlled  in  the  *'worm" 
stage.  It  is  in  this  stage  that  they  eat  most  food,  and 
consequently  it  is  in  this  stage  that  they  do  most 
damage  to  the  crops.  It  is  important,  then,  to  know 
when  the  butterfly-to-be  is  in  the  larval  stage,  and 
where  it  can  be  found  at  that  time.  The  cabbage 
butterfly  eats  little  or  nothing  as  an  adult,  and  there- 
fore does  little  damage.     It  is  a  very  difficult  task  to 


SOME  GROUPS  OF   INSECTS  293 

keep  picking  the  eggs  from  the  cabbage  leaf;  and  it 
is  not  in  the  pupal  stage  that  the  butterfly  does  most 
damage,  so  it  is  hardly  advisable  to  attack  it  then. 
Only  when  it  is  about  to  do  most  damage  can  it  be 
fought  efi^ectively. 

The  codling  moth  lays  its  eggs  so  that  they  will 
hatch  soon  after  the  apples  are  in  blossom.  The  little 
worm  then  crawls  into  the  blossom  end  of  the  newly 
formed  apple  and  remains  there.  It  is  important  that 
the  farmer  should  know  this  in  order  to  know  when  to 
spray.  If  he  waits  until  after  the  little  worm  is  securely 
imbedded  in  the  apple,  or  if  he  sprays  before  the  moth 
appears  in  the  spring  to  lay  its  eggs,  spraying  will  be 
useless  and  no  harm  will  come  to  the  moth. 

The  potato  beetle  has  a  definite  life  cycle  and  it 
should  be  killed  when  about  to  do  most  damage  to 
crops.  But  we  need  to  know  the  life  history  of  the 
potato  beetle,  as  well  as  any  other  insect,  in  order  to 
know  when  to  strike  to  do  most  toward  its  destruction. 

The  majority  of  insects  have  four  complete  stages  in 
their  life  history.  The  chinch  bug,  however,  does  not 
pass  through  the  same  stages  as  the  cabbage  butterfly 
passes  through.  It  does  pass  through  diff^erent  stages, 
but  they  represent  a  more  gradual  development.  The 
grasshopper  does  not  have  these  stages,  but  is  just  a  small 
grasshopper  when  it  first  comes  into  existence.  Thus 
we  may  understand  how  necessary  it  is  for  the  farmer 
to  know  the  life  and  habits  of  insects  in  order  to  be 
able  to  control  them  effectively. 


294  FARM   PROJECTS 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Arrange  in  classes  the  insects  which  you  know. 

2.  Give  the  life  history  of  the  codHng  moth  and  potato  beetle. 

3.  Write  a  story  telling  how  the  codling  moth  lives  and  how  it 
may  be  controlled. 

4.  What  distinctive  marks  or  features  belong  to  all  insects? 

5.  Name  some  insects  which  chew  their  food  and  some  which 
suck  their  food. 

6.  The  class  should  arrange  an  exhibit  showing  specimens  of 
each  class  of  insects  studied. 

7.  Collect  information  showing  the  damage  done  by  insects  in 
your  community. 

8.  What  damage  was  done  on  your  farm  last  year  by  insects  .f" 

9.  What  birds  in  your  locality  destroy  insects.?      Are  these 
birds  harmful  to  the  farmer  in  any  way.? 

10.  If  ten  per  cent  of  the  wheat  crop  in  the  community  were  to  be 
destroyed  by  the  Hessian  fly,  what  would  be  the  loss  in  money  at 
present  prices  ? 


XVI 
THE  CONTROL  OF  INSECTS 

Home  Work 

The  home  work  will  consist  of  practice  in  controlling 
insects.  One  insect  will  be  used  as  an  illustration. 
Every  boy  should  arrange  with  his  father  to  carry  out 
the  directions  for  controlling  this  one  insect.  There 
are  few  gardens  in  which  the  Colorado  potato  beetle 
cannot  be  found  almost  as  soon  as  the  potatoes  come 
through  the  soil.  Sometimes  it  may  be  found  even 
before  this  time.  In  order  to  combat  the  potato  beetle, 
one  must  know  something  of  its  life  history.  The 
insect  is  an  eating  or  chewing  insect  and  hence  may  be 
poisoned  with  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead.  This 
should  be  applied  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  since  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  will  destroy  such  fungus  diseases  as 
may  be  present.* 

A  hand  spray  will  work  very  well  for  a  small  area  and 
for  larger  areas  a  barrel  spray  should  be  used.  It 
will  pay  to  invest  in  a  spray  adapted  to  the  size  of  the 
potato  patch.  If  no  other  spray  is  available,  the  hand 
spray  used  for  spraying  cows  against  flies  or  a  common 
sprinkling  can   may  be  used.     It  will   require   much 

*These  sprays  may  be  obtained  at  the  drug  store. 

295 


296  FARM   PROJECTS 

labor,  however,  to  spray  many  potato  vines  by  these 
methods.  By  leaving  a  row  unsprayed,  a  comparison 
may  be  made  which  will  serve  as  a  good  demonstration 
of  the  value  of  spraying,  but  the  unsprayed  row 
furnishes  a  breeding  place  and  only  adds  to  the  work 
of  keeping  down  the  damage  done.  Perhaps  a  small 
unsprayed  patch  somewhere  in  the  community  may 
be  compared  with  others  that  have  been  sprayed. 

The  potato  vines  should  be  sprayed  thoroughly  each 
week.  It  is  important  to  spray  the  under  sides  of  the 
leaves  as  well  as  the  upper  sides,  since  the  eggs  are 
hatched  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf.  This  method 
will  prevent  the  newly  hatched  larvae  from  getting  a 
start  on  the  leaves.  If  Paris  green  is  used  without  lime 
or  Bordeaux  mixture,  there  is  danger  of  "burning"  the 
foliage  of  the  plants. 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

Damage  by  Insects. — Now  that  we  have  learned 
something  about  the  life  history  and  habits  of  the 
insects  and  have  begun  to  appreciate  the  amount  of 
damage  done  annually  by  them,  we  need  to  consider 
the  methods  by  which  we  can  control  them.  It  is 
practically  impossible  to  stop  an  army  of  insects  after 
they  have  once  started  their  work  of  destruction  in 
corn  fields  or  on  other  crops.  An  army  of  worms  some- 
times destroys  a  clover  field  in  a  very  short  time. 
Chinch  bugs  will  kill  a  field  of  corn  in  a  very  short  time. 


THE  CONTROL  OF  INSECTS 


297 


with 

All 

day 


We  frequently  see  stalks  of  corn  that  are  black 
chinch  bugs  as  high  as  two  feet  from  the  ground, 
these  have  come  into  the  corn  field  in  a  single 
or  night  after  the  wheat 
in  a  near-by  field  has  been 
harvested.     It  is  only  by 
checking  the  develop- 
ment of  the  insects  and 
by  keeping  the  insects  un- 
der control  that  farmers 
can  hope  to  destroy  them 
efi^ectively. 

Enemies  of  Insects. — It 
is  true  that  there  are 
many  natural  agencies 
which  help  to  keep  the 
insects  under  control.  In- 
sects are  subject  to  dis- 

1  Fig.  62. —  He  is  as  wise  as  he  looks, 

eases  just  as  people  are.  and  destroys  many  enemies  of  the 
There  is  a  disease  that  ''^''^^  '''''  "'  ''''^  ^^^  ''''''''■ 
kills  chinch  bugs  in  a  very  wet  spring  season.  Fol- 
lowing a  wet  spring,  we  do  not  look  for  many  chinch 
bugs.  Some  insects  prey  upon  others,  thus  killing 
off  insects  that  are  harmful  to  the  crops.  Birds,  too, 
eat  the  insects.  However,  we  cannot  depend  upon 
the  natural  enemies  of  insects  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  damage  done  to  our  crops.  There  are  some  gen- 
eral methods  of  insect  control  which  have  been  devised 
by  man. 


298  FARM   PROJECTS 

Destroying  the  Home  of  the  Insect. — The  best  way 
to  prevent  the  damage  done  by  insects  is  to  prevent 
the  insect  from  hatching.  Every  farmer  can  make  it 
unpleasant  and  very  uncomfortable  for  the  insects  by 
cleaning  up  all  breeding  places  which  the  insects  can 
call  home.  If  their  homes  are  destroyed,  they  will 
eventually  be  destroyed. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  farmer  to  work  industriously 
to  keep  the  farm  free  from  such  places,  for  not  only  will 
his  own  crops  be  damaged  but  those  of  other  farmers 
also.  It  is  surprising  to  know  the  number  of  insects 
which  may  be  housed  in  a  small  space  through  the 
winter.  A  hickory  nut  having  a  worm  hole  in  it  was 
picked  up  in  the  winter  and  cracked  and  several  hun- 
dred chinch  bugs  were  found  to  be  comfortably  housed 
in  this  mansion  of  many  rooms.  Many  insects  feed 
upon  weeds  during  the  winter  months  and  these  could 
be  destroyed  if  the  weeds  were  not  allowed  to  remain 
where  they  could  be  reached. 

Another  way  to  avoid  the  attacks  of  the  insects  is 
to  plant  a  crop  at  such  a  time  as  to  escape  a  large  num- 
ber of  insects.  Late  sown  fall  wheat  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  free  from  the  damage  done  by  the  Hessian 
fly.  In  some  instances  it  is  better  to  plant  certain 
crops  early  so  that  they  will  have  matured  before  the 
insect  appears. 

Late  fall  plowing  frequently  aids  very  much  in 
destroying  the  insects  which  live  in  the  soil  during  the 
winter  months.     Cutworms   pass   the   winter   in   the 


THE  CONTROL  OF  INSECTS 


299 


larval  stage  in  the  soil  and  the  corn  worm  passes  the 

winter  in  its  pupal  stage.    Late  fall  plowing  will  destroy 

the  winter  homes  of 

these  insects  and  thus 

becomes  an  effective 

method  of  combating 

them.     Some  insects 

lay  their  eggs  in  the 

soil  in  the  fall  and  late 

plowing   will    expose 

them  to  the  freezing 

weather    which    will 

hinder  them   from 

hatching.    Thorough 

cultivation  of  the 

crop  and  cleanliness 

about  the  farm  will 

effectively    eradicate 

the  insects. 

Spraying. — The 
most  common  meth- 
od of  fighting  the 
insect  is  the  applica- 
tion of  a  spray  to  the 
crops  affected.  Ap- 
ple trees  are  sprayed 
with  different  mix- 
tures, depending  upon  the  insect  which  is  to  be  com- 
bated.    Some  insects  attacking  fruits  and  vegetables 


Fig.  63.  "BoBWHiTE."  The  Bobwhite  in- 
cludes IN  HIS  DAILY  RATION  INSECTS  AND 
WEED  SEED.  He  IS  KNOWN  TO  EAT  I29 
SPECIES  OF  WEED  SEED  AND  I35  DIFFERENT 
KINDS  OF  INSECTS.  It  HAS  BEEN  ESTIMATED 
THAT  A  SINGLE  BoBWHITE  WILL  EAT  IN  ONE 
YEAR  FROM  SEVEN  TO  EIGHT  POUNDS  OF  IN- 
SECTS AND  TEN  TO  TWELVE  POUNDS  OF  WEED 

SEEDS.    This  bird  should  be  protected. 

He  is  a  GOOD  FRIEND  TO  THE  FARMER. 


300  FARM   PROJECTS 

chew  their  food,  and  by  spraying  the  plants  with 
poisonous  sprays  the  insects  may  be  killed.  Arsenate 
of  lead  and  Paris  green  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
Other  types  of  insects  do  not  chew  their  food  at  all, 
but  are  equipped  with  little  beaks  with  which  they 
pierce  the  outer  covering  of  the  plant  and  suck  their 
food.  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  poison  this 
type  by  spraying  the  tree  with  poison  since  they  do 
not  eat  the  part  that  can  be  sprayed.  An  effective 
method,  however,  of  combating  this  type  of  insect  is 
to  use  a  mixture  of  lime  and  sulphur  and  spray  the 
tree  while  this  insect  is  at  work.  This  mixture  will 
cover  the  insect  and  harden,  thus  smothering  it  to 
death. 

The  first  spray  is  called  the  poison  spray  and  the 
second  is  called  the  contact  spray.  Another  type  of  spray 
sometimes  used  is  called  the  repellent  spray.  This 
spray  is  made  up  of  substances  which  have  an  odor 
which  insects  do  not  like,  thus  keeping  them  away 
from  the  crop.  An  example  of  this  spray  is  a  mixture 
of  turpentine  and  lime,  which  is  sprayed  on  vegetables 
to  drive  away  cucumber  beetle. 

Sprayers. — There  are  numerous  types  of  apparatus 
for  spraying.  A  good  type  for  the  garden  or  home  use 
is  called  the  knapsack  sprayer.  This  apparatus  may 
be  strapped  on  the  back  and  is  very  convenient  to 
use.  The  common  type  of  sprayer  used  in  the  orchard 
is  the  power  sprayer  which  is  a  sprayer  attached  to  a 
gasoline  engine. 


THE  CONTROL  OF  INSECTS 


301 


Life,  History,  and  ControL — If  a  boy  expected  to 
have  a  fight  after  school  he  would  naturally  wish  to 
know  something  about  the  other  boy.     He  would  ask 


Courtesy  of  the  International  Harvester  Co. 
Fig.  64.     Life  cycle  of  a  fly 

himself  such  questions  as:  Where  will  he  be?  When 
will  he  be  there?  How  will  he  fight?  What  will  he 
have  in  his  pockets?  How  big  is  he?  If  boys  and 
girls  wish  to  fight  insects  they  need  to  know  something 
about  their  habits  and  life  history.     The  story  of  the 


302  FARM   PROJECTS 

codling  moth  is  given  as  an  illustration  of  what  you 
should  know  about  an  insect. 

The  eggs  hatch  and  the  worm  enters  the  apple  after 
the  blossoms  fall,  when  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple 
is  closing,  and  this  is  the  time  when  it  should  be  killed. 
If  the  spraying  is  delayed  for  many  days,  the  little 
worm  is  hidden  safely  away  in  the  center  of  the  apple. 
It  is  necessary  in  this  case  to  know  also  that  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  second  brood  or  generation  within  a  few 
weeks.  If  the  larvae  or  white  worms  escape  death, 
they  will  feed  upon  the  apple  for  about  two  weeks  until 
they  are  grown,  and  then  go  to  the  ground  to  rest  for 
about  the  same  length  of  time  before  coming  out  as 
full-grown  moths.  These  moths  or  adults  lay  eggs  for 
another  generation. 

Another  illustration  is  the  cutworm.  This  worm 
lives  during  the  winter  in  the  soil  and  comes  out 
looking  for  food  early  in  the  spring.  As  summer 
approaches,  it  goes  back  into  the  soil  and  rarely  goes 
deeper  than  an  inch  from  the  surface.  Since  it  is 
beneath  the  soil,  most  of  the  time  it  is  safe  from  any 
spray  that  could  be  used.  It  does  not  climb  upon  the 
plant  and  eat  the  leaves,  but  cuts  the  stem  off  near  the 
ground. 

The  most  effective  method  of  avoiding  the  ravages 
of  the  cutworm  is  to  place  a  tin  can,  with  the  bottom 
cut  out,  over  the  plant  to  be  protected.  Mr.  Cutworm 
comes  along  and  runs  against  this  tin  can.  Finding 
that  he  can  make  no  impression  upon  this  hard  surface, 


THE   CONTROL  OF  INSECTS  303 

he  proceeds  to  move  around  the  plant,  leaving  it  alone. 
If  this  simple  fact  were  known  to  boys  and  girls,  mucl 
time,  labor,  and  expense  could  be  saved  in  protecting 
plants  from  cutworms. 

Other  illustrations  may  be  given  by  the  class  to  show 
the  necessity  of  knowing  the  life  history  in  order  to 
fight  a  certain  insect. 

Some  sprays  commonly  used  are  listed  below: 

Bordeaux  mixture,  for  fungous  diseases. 

Lime  sulphur  mixture,  for  scale  insects  and  diseases  of  apples  and 

peaches. 
Lead  arsenate  (i  lb.  to  50  gal.  water),  a  poisonous  spray  used  for 

chewing  insects  such  as  the  currant  worm. 
Hellebore  (i  lb.  to  50  gal.  water),  effective  when  used  on  cabbage 

and  other  garden  plants  for  chewing  insects. 

Must  be  used  while  fresh. 
Paris  green  (^  lb.  with  2  lb.  lime  in  50  gal.  water),  a  poisonous 

spray  for  chewing  insects. 

Write  to  your  state  experiment  station  for  bulletins 
giving  the  spray  calendar  for  your  state. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Give  examples  of  damage  done  by  insects  in  your  commu- 
nity. 

2.  What  enemies  of  insects  have  you  seen  ? 

3.  What  may  be  done  on  the  farm  to  destroy  the  homes  or 
hiding  places  of  insects.? 

4.  Tell  how  to  destroy  the  Colorado  potato  beetle. 

5.  How  does  plowing  in  the  fall  affect  insects  ? 

6.  What  two  general  kinds  of  sprays  are  used .'' 


304  FARM   PROJECTS 

7.  Why  is  a  knowledge  of  the  life  history  of  an  insect  im- 
portant? 

8.  Name  the  poisons  usually  used  to  kill  insects. 

9.  Determine  the  cost  of  spraying  an  acre  of  potatoes  as  many 
times  as  is  necessary  to  keep  the  beetle  from  doing  damage.  Com- 
pare the  production  with  an  acre  or  a  part  of  an  acre  that  was  not 
sprayed.     Did  the  spraying  pay? 

10.  Tell  what  you  would  do  to  combat  the  cabbage  worm. 

11.  Each  member  of  the  class  should  clip  pictures  of  the  various 
types  of  sprayers  from  catalogues,  farm  journals,  and  other  ad- 
vertising material.  Bring  the  clippings  to  school  and  make  up  a 
picture  notebook  on  sprayers.  What  kinds  are  best  adapted  to 
your  community? 

12.  Name  some  of  the  chewing  insects  commonly  found  in  your 
community.     How  would  you  spray  in  order  to  combat  them  ? 

13.  Make  up  a  spray  calendar  for  your  home  garden,  indicating 
the  kinds  of  sprays  which  are  used  and  the  time  when  they  are  used. 

14.  Where  have  you  seen  sucking  insects  at  work?  Can  you 
suggest  differences  between  sucking  insects  and  chewing  insects 
other  than  the  difference  in  the  way  they  eat? 

15.  It  has  been  estimated  that  apple  scab  alone  caused  $6,000,- 
000  damage  in  one  year.  How  many  bushels  of  apples  could  be 
purchased  at  the  present  price  for  this  amount  of  money?  How 
many  schoolhouses  such  as  yours  could  be  erected  for  this  amount? 

16.  If  spraying  an  orchard  three  times  per  year  increased  the 
yield  of  apples  no  bushels  per  acre,  what  is  the  value,  at  current 
prices,  of  the  increase?  If  the  cost  of  spraying  was  $40  per 
acre,  what  per  cent  of  profit  was  gained  on  the  investment  in 
spraying  ? 


XVII 
INSECTS   OF  THE  GARDEN 

Home  Work 

The  following  directions  are  given  for  home  work  so 
that  the  pupil  may  know  how  to  combat  the  various 
insects.  If  any  insect  is  not  to  be  found  the  treatment 
need  not  be  given. 

The  Cutworm. — When  the  cabbage  and  tomato 
plants  are  set  in  the  garden,  protect  them  with  old 
tin  cans  by  cutting  out  both  top  and  bottom  of  the 
cans,  placing  them  over  the  plants  and  pressing  them 
down  into  the  soil  about  two  inches.  This  prevents 
the  worm  from  reaching  the  stem  of  the  plant  because 
the  worm  does  not  go  very  deep  into  the  soil,  but 
works  just  beneath  the  surface.  Heavy  paper  wrapped 
about  the  plant  when  it  is  set  will  serve  the  same  pur- 
pose. Cut  worms  may  be  poisoned  by  making  a  bait 
of  one  tablespoonful  of  Paris  green  and  one  quart  of 
bran,  mixed  with  sweetened  water,  and  spreading  it  near 
the  plants. 

The  Cabbage  Worm. — The  cabbage  butterfly  deposits 
her  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  the  cabbage  leaf.  The 
worms  which  hatch  from  these  eggs  are  very  injurious, 
since   they  destroy  the  leaves.     Dusting  the  cabbage 

305 


3o6  FARM   PROJECTS 

leaves  with  lime  or  ashes  may  prevent  the  eggs  from 
hatching,  but  be  sure  to  dust  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves. 

Spray  the  plants  with  a  solution  of  Paris  green,  using 
the  formula  suggested  in  the  chapter  on  sprays.  When 
the  cabbage  begins  to  head,  white  hellebore  should  be 
used  instead  of  the  Paris  green,  as  it  is  less  poisonous  and 
not  so  dangerous  to  use  on  a  plant  which  is  to  be  eaten. 

Put  some  of  the  worms  in  a  jar,  keeping  some  mois- 
ture and  fresh  cabbage  leaves  in  the  jar,  and  observe 
the  development  of  the  worm  and  the  change  into  the 
resting  stage.  Try  to  catch  the  butterfly  in  the  act 
of  emerging  from  the  pupa  or  resting  stage. 

Cucumber  Beetle. — The  striped  cucumber  beetle  is  a 
familiar  enemy  in  the  cucumber  or  melon  patch.  The 
beetles  feed  on  stems  and  leaves,  remaining  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves.  Mix  five  tablespoonfuls  of 
turpentine  with  a  gallon  of  air-slaked  lime.  Dust  this 
mixture  on  the  vines  as  soon  as  they  come  up,  repeating 
the  process  every  few  days  until  the  vines  are  a  month 
old,  and  the  beetles  should  not  cause  much  damage. 
Some  gardeners  spray  the  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  Paris  green,  which  is  not  only  off^ensive  to  the  insects, 
but  is  poisonous  to  the  beetles  which  eat  the  leaves. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — Mix  Paris  green  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  by  putting  one-half  pound  of  the 
substance  in  fifty  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  Spray 
the  potato  vines  when  they  are  about  six  inches  high, 
repeating  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  keep  the  beetle  in 


INSECTS  OF  THE  GARDEN  307 

check.  The  Bordeaux  mixture  serves  as  a  repellent  to 
the  flea  beetle  and  as  a  fungicide  to  check  the  bhght 
of  potatoes,  while  the  Paris  green  poisons  the  potato 
beetle.  If  the  beetles  get  a  start  and  the  spray  does 
not  check  them,  the  little  red  larvae  and  the  striped 
adults  should  be  *' picked"  by  knocking  them  into  a 
pan  with  a  small  wooden  paddle. 

Melon  Lice. — Spray  the  melons  or  cucumbers  where 
the  tiny  lice  are  found  with  a  mixture  of  nicotine 
sulfate,  "Black  Leaf  40, "  which  may  be  secured  at  a 
drug  store.  Be  sure  to  spray  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
leaves,  as  the  lice  work  there.  This  spray  is  effective  for 
other  plant  lice  and  should  be  used  when  the  lice  appear 
on  the  plants.  Observe  the  lady  bug  or  lady  beetle  as 
it  attacks  these  lice.  If  the  lice  do  not  get  started  in 
large  numbers,  the  lady  bug  will  hold  them  in  check. 

Tomato  Worms. — Watch  for  the  large  green  worms 
to  appear  on  the  tomato  plants,  and  pick  them  off  and 
destroy  them.  Try  to  collect  some  of  the  worms  and 
observe  them  go  into  the  pupa  stage.  Place  them  in  a 
jar  with  some  twigs  and  feed  them  green  leaves.  What 
difficulties  do  you  find  in  growing  these  worms.? 


Facts  to  be  Studied 

In  order  to  fight  insects  eff^ectively,  we  must  know 
their  habits.  The  following  paragraphs  tell  the  life 
story  of  the  insects  you  have  been  watching  for  in  the 
garden. 


3o8  FARM   PROJECTS 

Cutworms. — There  are  many  different  kinds  of  cur- 
worms,  but  all  of  them  have  similar  habits.  The 
cutworm  is  the  larva  or  worm  stage  of  a  grayish-brown 
moth  which  flies  at  night  among  the  trees  and  shrubs, 
where  it  deposits  its  eggs.  These  eggs  hatch  and  the 
little  worms  make  their  way  to  the  ground  where  they 
begin  life  among  the  grasses  and  clovers,  feeding  upon 
the  tender  plants.  By  autumn,  when  the  frost  comes, 
the  cutworms  are  about  half  grown  and  they  must 
seek  shelter  from  the  winter  weather,  so  they  find 
cavities  in  some  fence  post,  or  burrow  in  the  soil. 

When  the  warm  days  come  in  the  spring,  the  cut- 
worm comes  from  its  hiding  place,  a  half-grown,  hungry 
fellow,  ready  to  devour  any  green  food.  He  works 
just  beneath  the  soil  most  of  the  time,  doing  most  of 
his  feeding  at  night.  He  eats  his  way  through  the 
stem  of  tender  tomato  or  cabbage  plants,  cutting  off 
the  plant  as  he  does  so.  Instead  of  making  the 
remainder  of  his  meal  from  the  plant  which  he  has  just 
cut  down,  he  goes  to  another  plant,  treating  it  as  he 
did  the  first  one.  The  worm  becomes  full  grown  in 
early  summer  and  goes  into  the  soil  for  a  resting  period 
of  about  a  month,  then  comes  out  as  a  full  grown 
adult  or  moth.  About  two  years  pass  from  the  time 
the  egg  hatches  until  the  worm  develops  into  a  full 
grown  moth. 

Cabbage  Worm. — The  green  cabbage  worm  which 
destroys  so  much  cabbage  in  the  garden  during  the 
summer  is   the  larva  of  a  white   butterfly,   which   is 


INSECTS  OF  THE  GARDEN  309 

very  common  in  the  garden.  The  female  has  two 
black  spots  on  each  front  wing.  In  spring  and  early 
summer  the  butterflies  deposit  their  eggs  upon  the 
under  side  of  the  cabbage  leaves,  where  they  may  be 
found  in  clusters.  They  hatch  into  tiny  worms,  which 
soon  develop  into  full  grown  worms  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  in  length.  After  about  two  weeks  in  the  worm 
stage,  they  go  into  the  resting  stage,  in  which  stage 
they  may  be  found  attached  to  fences  or  beneath 
rubbish  in  the  garden.  In  about  ten  days  the  insect 
emerges  as  a  fully  developed  butterfly  which  again 
lays  eggs  and  the  same  life  cycle  is  repeated,  several 
generations  being  produced  each  year. 

Striped  Cucumber  Beetle. — The  yellow  and  black 
beetle,  which  comes  in  great  armies  to  the  melon  patch, 
is  familiar  to  any  boy  or  girl  who  has  tried  to  raise 
melons  or  cucumbers.  The  beetles  feed  upon  the  plants, 
soon  destroying  the  leaves.  The  female  beetles  lav 
their  eggs  in  the  soil  near  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and 
the  tiny  white  worms  which  hatch  feed  upon  the  roots 
of  the  plant.  The  worms  remain  in  the  soil  during  the 
resting  stage,  and  reach  maturity  about  six  or  eight 
weeks  after  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  adult  beetle  hiber- 
nates during  the  winter  ready  to  come  out  in  the  spring 
to  devour  the  young  plants.  It  is  interesting  to  see 
the  large  numbers  which  seem  to  spring  up  over  night. 
If  one  does  not  keep  careful  watch  over  the  young 
plants,  the  beetles  are  likely  to  destroy  them  before  the 
gardener  can  destroy  the  beetles. 


3IO  FARM   PROJECTS 

The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — As  soon  as  the  potato 
plants  appear  in  the  spring,  a  few  brown-striped  beetles, 
about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  may  be  seen  on  the 
leaves.  These  beetles  deposit  yellow  eggs  in  clusters 
on  the  leaves.  These  eggs  soon  hatch  into  tiny  red 
larvae  which  have  a  wormlike  appearance,  feeding  upon 
the  potato  plants,  destroying  the  leaves  and  stems. 
After  a  few  weeks,  the  little  red  grubs  go  to  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  where  they  pupate  or  go  into  the  resting 
stage,  and  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks  they  come  out  as 
adult  beetles.  Two  or  more  generations  grow  each 
year.  This  beetle  is  one  of  the  most  harmful  insects, 
since  it  can  in  a  short  time  check  the  growth  of  the  potato 
crop.  It  begins  its  damage  early  in  the  life  of  the  plant 
and  soon  injures  the  foliage  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
plant  ceases  to  grow. 

Plant  Lice. — Most  interesting  of  all  is  the  story  of 
the  tiny  plant  lice  and  their  habits.  These  insects 
suck  their  food  from  the  foliage  by  thrusting  their 
beaks  into  the  tender  tissue.  Plant  lice  may  be  found 
on  sweet  pea  vines,  house  plants,  melon  leaves,  apple 
sprouts,  and  on  many  other  common  plants. 

The  first  generations  produce  live  young  and  do  not 
lay  eggs,  but  increase  their  number  very  rapidly.  The 
last  generation  of  the  year  usually  lays  eggs  for  the 
next  brood.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are  cared  for  by 
ants  and  hatch  out  in  the  spring.  The  ants  then  care 
for  the  young  lice  and  help  them  to  get  established  on 
some  plant.     The  ant  sucks  a  milky  fluid  from  the  lice, 


INSECTS  OF  THE  GARDEN  311 

and  for  this  reason  plant  lice  are  sometimes  called  the 
ants*  cows.  Some  lice  have  wings  and  some  are  wing- 
less, the  last  brood  generally  having  wings.  The  lady 
bug  is  an  enemy  of  plant  lice. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  life  story  of  a  few 
insects,  boys  and  girls  can  make  observations  of  other 
insects  and  become  acquainted  with  their  life  habits. 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "life  history".? 

2.  What  are  the  stages  in  a  complete  life  history,  such  as  that 
of  the  potato  beetle .? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  coloring  of  the  male  and 
female  cabbage  butterfly? 

4.  Tell  about  other  injurious  insects  to  be  found  in  the  com- 
munity. 

5.  What  birds  have  you  noticed  eating  insects.? 

6.  Do  you  know  of  any  animals  that  eat  insects  ? 

7.  Why  do  insects  cause  more  damage  in  the  worm  stage  than 
in  the  adult  stage.? 

8.  Observe  the  toad  to  find  out  how  it  eats  and  what  it  eats. 
'  Catch  a  toad  and  place  it  in  a  box  with  some  green  moist  turf  in  it. 

Catch  some  flies  and  other  insects  and  put  them  in  the  box. 

9.  What  damage  to  your  garden  was  done  by  insects  during  the 
past  year .? 


XVIII 
THE   HONEYBEE 

Home  Work 

Bees  at  Home. — Observe  a  hive  of  bees  closely  to 
determine  the  answer  to  this  question:  How  early 
in  the  morning  do  bees  begin  work?  Notice  the 
blossoms  early  in  the  morning  to  find  the  early  workers. 
At  what  time  of  day  do  you  find  bees  in  large  numbers 
on  the  outside  of  the  hive  ?  Can  you  suggest  a  reason 
for  the  bees'  settling  outside  at  this  time?  How  late 
in  the  afternoon  or  evening  do  you  find  bees  entering 
the  hive? 

Bees  at  Work. — Observe  the  bees  at  work.  What 
flowers  seem  to  be  favorites  with  the  bees?  Time  the 
busy  little  worker  as  he  sucks  away  at  a  flower.  What 
is  the  longest  time  spent  on  any  one  flower?  Does  the 
bee  go  from  flower  to  flower  or  does  he  fly  back  to  the 
hive  as  soon  as  he  has  finished  taking  nectar  from  a 
single  flower?  Do  the  bees  go  to  the  most  fragrant 
flowers  first?  Do  you  find  more  bees  on  the  highly 
colored  flowers  than  you  find  on  such  flowers  as  the 
tiny  white  blossoms  of  weeds  or  small  fruits? 

Try  to  find  some  drones  among  the  bees  and  com- 
pare them  with  the  workers.     Sometimes  some  bee- 

312 


THE  HONEYBEE  313 

keeper  in  the  locality  has  an  observation  hive;  that  is, 
one  with  glass  sides.  If  such  a  hive  can  be  arranged 
so  that  the  class  can  see  the  bees  at  work  in  the  hive  a 
most  interesting  study  may  be  made  of  their  habits 
within  their  home.  The  teacher  may  be  able  to  secure 
such  a  hive  for  the  school.  Place  some  bottle  corks 
in  a  pail  of  water  and  set  it  near  the  hive  of  bees.  Do 
the  bees  seem  to  enjoy  the  water.?  Your  answer  to 
this  question  will  depend  upon  the  time  of  year.  Try 
it  in  early  spring,  in  summer,  and  in  the  fall. 

Write  a  story  telling  what  you  saw  as  you  watched  the 
bees  at  work. 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Lessons  from  the  Bee. — Boys  and  girls  may  learn 
many  valuable  lessons  from  the  close  observation  of  a 
family  of  bees.  Let  us  look  into  the  home  and  see 
how  they  live  in  the  little  rooms  which  they  build  and 
which  we  call  cells.  Every  cell  or  room  is  neatly  and 
carefully  made.  So  well  are  they  made  that  we  cannot 
tell  one  room  from  another  as  we  look  at  the  comb. 
The  bees  seem  to  take  pride  in  their  home  and  they  do 
many  things  to  keep  it  in  perfect  order. 

Only  the  best  of  the  nectar  is  good  enough  for  the 
honeybees  for  they  will  seek  out  the  sweetest  flowers 
from  which  to  gather  honey  rather  than  take  sugar 
which  has  been  placed  within  their  reach.  This  honey 
is  carefully  stored  in  the  cells  or  storerooms  and  thus 
provision  is  made  for  the  winter  food  supply.     What 


314  FARM   PROJECTS 

in  nature  is  more  wonderful  than  the  pound  of  honey 
so  neatly  and  carefully  packed  in  cells  and  sealed  so 
not  a  drop  can  escape?  It  is  the  result  of  untiring 
industry  and  foresight  on  the  part  of  the  little  bees. 
Let  us  remember  that  these  little  friends  are  really  not 
preparing  these  packages  of  delicious  honey  for  our  use, 
but  for  their  own  family  use,  and  when  we  take  the  honey 
from  the  hive  we  are  robbing  the  bees  of  the  food 
which  they  have  stored  for  their  own  use. 

The  Family. — Let  us  inquire  about  the  family  which 
seems  to  dwell  in  such  complete  harmony  within  the 
home.  There  is  always  one  mother  bee  called  the 
queen  bee,  and  she  has  more  children  than  the  "old 
woman  who  lived  in  a  shoe."  As  in  some  families,  there 
are  certain  members  that  do  the  work  while  others  are 
idle.  In  the  beehive  are  many  hundreds  that  do  no 
work.     These  are  called  drones. 

The  Queen. — The  mother  bee  is  really  and  truly  a 
mother  in  the  hive  for  she  lays  the  eggs  which  later 
hatch  into  workers  and  drones.  When  the  bees  find 
themselves  without  a  queen,  disorder  is  likely  to  result 
until  another  queen  is  reared.  The  queen  bees  are 
hatched  from  eggs  which  would  ordinarily  develop  into 
workers,  the  difference  being  that  the  eggs  are  placed 
in  larger  cells  called  queen  cells.  The  young  are  fed 
on  "royal  jelly,"  a  special  food  which  causes  the  newly 
hatched  bees  to  develop  rapidly  and  to  a  larger  size 
than  ordinary  bees.  When  several  hatch  and  develop, 
all  are  killed  but  the  one  that  is  strongest,  and  this  one 


THE  HONEYBEE  315 

grows  into  the  queen  bee.  The  queen  stays  in  the  hive 
except  when  the  bees  swarm  and  then  she  takes  what 
is  called  her  bridal  trip.  This  happens  when  she  is 
about  a  week  old.  On  this  bridal  trip  the  queen  bee 
mates  with  a  drone  while  flying  in  the  air.  Her  eggs 
may  thus  be  fertilized  and  she  goes  back  to  her  hive  to 
lay  several  thousand  eggs  in  the  cells  of  the  comb. 

The  Workers. — The  workers  are  the  female  bees  that 
gather  the  honey,  build  the  comb,  and  take  care  of 
the  home.  It  is  the  workers  that  sting,  fight  the 
enemies  of  the  family,  and  gather  food  for  the  young 
bees.  In  size  the  workers  are  the  smallest  bees  of  the 
group.  They  are  hatched  from  the  fertilized  eggs 
which  the  queen  lays  in  the  cells  of  the  comb.  The 
workers  do  not  usually  lay  any  eggs,  though  sometimes 
they  do  lay  a  few  which  may  hatch  into  drones. 
Workers  live  but  a  short  time;  those  reared  in  summer 
do  not  live  much  longer  than  a  month  because  of  the 
strenuous  work  they  do,  but  the  winter  workers  may 
live  six  months  because  they  have  less  work.  The 
family  or  colony  of  bees  must  be  kept  up  in  numbers  by 
the  queen,  and  she  is  able  to  do  this  by  laying  large 
numbers  of  eggs — two  or  three  thousand  in  one  day. 

The  Drones. — The  lazy  bees  that  do  no  work  about 
the  home  are  males  and  are  hatched  from  unfertilized 
eggs  deposited  by  the  queen.  The  only  purpose  of 
the  drone  is  to  mate  with  the  queen.  Only  one  drone 
mates  with  a  queen,  so  there  are  always  hundreds  of 
drones  and  sometimes  thousands  in  a  hive  that  are  of 


3i6  FARM   PROJECTS 

no  value  to  the  family.  They  are  killed  by  the  females 
or  workers,  sometimes  being  killed  in  the  hive  and 
carried  or  dragged  outside.  The  killing  of  drones  takes 
place  soon  after  the  bees  swarm.  The  drones  are  some- 
what larger  than  the  females  and  may  be  distinguished 
as  they  fly  through  the  air  by  a  louder  buzz. 

The  Bee's  Life  Story. — The  changes  which  take  place 
in  the  body  of  an  insect  have  already  been  described 
and  how  truly  wonderful  they  are.  The  bee  is  an 
insect  belonging  to  the  order  of  Hymenoptera,  meaning 
that  it  has  membrane-like  wings.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  in  the  cells  of  the  comb  in  the  part  of  the 
hive  set  apart  for  hatching  purposes  and  hatch  in 
about  three  days  into  tiny  white  worms  or  larvae. 
These  little  worms  do  not  crawl  out  and  hunt  food  for 
themselves  as  do  the  cabbage  worms  and  cutworms. 
So  the  workers  feed  the  tiny  creatures  a  substance  they 
produce,  which  may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the  milk 
which  the  cow  feeds  her  young.  After  a  few  days  they 
are  fed  honey  and  pollen  from  flowers  and  the  tiny  white 
worms  grow  very  rapidly,  reaching  maturity  in  about 
a  week.  The  cell  is  then  sealed  by  the  workers  and 
the  worm  or  larva  goes  into  the  resting  stage  by  spin- 
ning a  cocoon  about  its  body,  and  after  a  few  days  it 
changes  into  the  adult  form.  The  workers  develop 
into  full  grown  adults  in  three  weeks'  time  after  the 
egg  is  laid,  while  the  drone  requires  a  few  days  longer. 
The  workers  soon  leave  the  hive  and  go  to  work  for 
the  family. 


THE  HONEYBEE  317 

What  Is  Beeswax? — It  Is  Indeed  a  remarkable  and 
Interesting  fact  that  bees  are  able  to  make  the  comb 
and  arrange  the  cells  In  such  perfect  order.  The  wax 
which  makes  up  the  comb  Is  made  by  a  peculiar  process 
of  digestion  and  appears  In  scales  on  the  under  side  of 
the  body  of  the  bee.  It  requires  about  twenty-four 
hours  to  make  these  scales.  The  bee  goes  out  and 
fills  Its  stomach  with  honey  or  nectar  from  the  flowers, 
then  remains  quiet  for  twenty-four  hours  while  these 
scales  form;  It  then  uses  the  waxy  scales  to  make  up 
new  cells  in  which  to  store  more  honey. 

Nectar  or  Honey. — Bees  are  said  to  make  honey  from 
the  nectar  or  sweet  juice  of  the  flowers.  However, 
they  really  do  not  make  honey,  but  gather  It;  for  the 
honey  is  really  just  the  nectar  of  the  flowers  after  a 
large  part  of  the  water  has  evaporated.  The  bee 
gathers  the  nectar  by  sucking  It  Into  her  stomach  and 
when  she  has  a  load  she  goes  to  the  hive  and  deposits 
It  In  the  little  cells  already  made.  If  no  cells  are 
vacant,  she  waits  until  the  honey  Is  changed  into  the 
waxy  scales  and  then  makes  more  cells  before  going 
out  after  more  honey.  The  cells  are  not  sealed  until 
the  honey  cures  or  ripens,  which  means  that  the  water 
has  evaporated  from  It.  How  strange  and  Interesting 
it  Is  to  know  that  the  bee  does  all  this  and  yet  makes  a 
neat  package  without  a  trace  of  the  sticky  substance  on 
the  outside  of  the  cap  which  seals  the  tiny  cells  of  honey. 

Flowers  for  Honey. — Bees  gather  honey  from  many 
difi^erent  kinds  of  blossoms,  the  honey  locust  being  a 


3i8  FARM   PROJECTS 

common  tree  which  furnishes  good  honey.  Perhaps 
the  most  common  honey  plant  found  on  the  prairies  is 
white  clover.  The  blossoms  of  sweet  clover  also 
furnish  a  very  excellent  quality  of  white  clear  honey. 
Buckwheat,  which  is  often  planted  for  the  benefit  of  bees, 
yields  a  darker  honey  than  does  clover.  Many  common 
weeds  produce  honey.  The  flavor  and  color  of  honey 
depend  upon  the  kind  of  plant  from  which  it  was  taken. 
Farmers  who  have  bees  should  provide  some  flowering 
crops  throughout  the  season  for  them,  and  should  not 
expect  a  good  quality  or  quantity  of  honey  in  the  fall  if 
the  bees  have  been  starved  through  the  summer  season. 
The  Bee  Sting. — Many  boys  and  girls  are  not  very 
friendly  with  the  honeybee,  in  spite  of  all  its  good 
traits  and  interesting  habits,  because  they  are  afraid 
of  the  sting.  The  idea  that  bees  are  not  friendly  has 
developed  from  experiences  with  wild  and  poor  grades 
of  bees.  The  Italian  bees  are  not  so  wild  and  ferocious 
as  the  ordinary  bees.  Queen  bees  may  be  purchased 
from  firms  handling  bees  and  in  this  way  the  colony 
may  be  improved.  The  bee  has  a  sack  of  poison 
connected  with  the  sting,  and  some  of  this  poison  may 
be  sent  into  the  blood  when  a  bee  stings  an  individual. 
Some  people  are  aff^ected  very  little,  while  others  suff^er 
greatly  from  stings.  There  is  little  need  for  alarm  if 
the  bees  are  treated  well  and  handled  properly,  but 
for  safety,  bee-keepers  use  a  net  covering  over  the 
face  and  a  bee-smoker  when  robbing  the  hives  or 
handling  the  bees. 


THE  HONEYBEE  319 

Problems  and  Review  Exercises 

1.  Describe  the  different  kinds  of  bees  to  be  found  in  a  hive  or 
colony. 

2.  How  does  the  queen  bee  differ  in  regard  to  her  daily  habits 
from  the  other  bees  ? 

3  •   Which  bees  lay  eggs  ? 

4.  Where  are  the  eggs  deposited  ? 

5.  Describe  the  life  changes  which  take  place  as  the  bee  develops 
or  grows  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  bee. 

6.  How  does  honey  from  the  hive  differ  from  the  nectar  which 
is  in  the  flower.? 

7.  What  different  colors  have  you  noticed  in  honey.?  How 
many  different  flavors  have  you  tasted  ?  Which  kind  of  honey  do 
you  like  best.?     Why.? 

8.  How  many  farmers  in  the  community  keep  bees.?  Do  they 
regard  it  as  a  profitable  side  line  on  the  farm .? 

9.  What  do  you  do  in  order  to  relieve  the  pain  when  you  are 
stung  by  a  bee .? 

10.    Write  a  short  composition  on  the  subject  of   "How    Bees 
Make  Honey." 


XIX 

MACHINES 

Home  Work 

Make  a  survey  of  your  home  farm  to  determine  the 
kind,  amount,  and  value  of  the  farm  machinery. 
Tabulate  as  follows: 


Implement 


Age 


Condition 


Original  Cost 


Estimated 
Present  Valle 


How  much  depreciation  should  be  allowed  each  year 
for  the  wear  and  tear  of  machinery?  This  can  be 
estimated  by  dividing  the  cost  of  the  machine  by  the 
number  of  years  it  lasts. 

Find  a  strong  bar  or  pole  ten  feet  long.  Test  your 
ability  to  lift  weights  by  means  of  this  lever.  Place  a 
block  one  foot  from  the  end  and  use  the  bar  as  a  pry 
bar  or  lever.  How  much  can  you  lift.?  Place  the 
block  two  feet  from  the  end.  How  much  can  you  lift? 
Make  other  tests  of  your  strength  and  the  advantage 
afforded  by  the  lever.     Study  the  block  and  tackle  if 

320 


MACHINES 


121 


you  have  one  on  the  farm.  Make  one  from  spools 
and  cord. 

Study  the  plows  used  on  your  farm.  What  types 
of  moldboard  do  you  find.?  What  width  of  furrow 
does  the  plow  make.?  How  many  horses  are  required 
to  draw  the  sulky  plow.?  How  many  acres  can  one 
man  plow  in  a  day  with  a  two-horse  walking  plow.? 

Study  a  farm  wagon.  Ask  your  father  to  help  you 
name  the  parts.  List  all  the  parts  of  the  wagon  as 
follows : 


Parts 

Number 

Purpose 

1 

i 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Machines  an  Aid  to  the  Farmer. — The  machine 
enables  man  to  do  much  that  could  not  be  ac- 
complished without  its  use.  One  man  can  lift  a 
heavy  stone  to  the  top  of  a  high  building  with  the 
aid  of  a  pulley;  he  can  turn  the  sod  of  several  acres 
of  land  a  day  by  means  of  a  tractor;  he  can  go  long 
distances  in  a  short  time  by  using  the  automobile. 
Suppose  the  stone  could  be  lifted  only  by  hand  power, 
the  sod  had  to  be  turned  without  the  aid  of  a  plow  or 
even  a  hoe,  and  the  trip  from  St.  Louis  to  Chicago  could 


322 


FARM   PROJECTS 


SEVERSIBIE  FLOAT 


SIGHT  FEED  LUBRICATOR 
(SOLE  (XL  SUPfLY)  "" 


BELL  SPEED  INDICATOR 

THE  "WARNING  SIGNAl. 
THAI  mSUStS  PROPER  SPEED 


SEPARATING  D:SCS 
CONCAVE  BOnOM  BOWL 


ONE  PIECE  DETACHED  SPINDLE 


HIGH  BEARING  CASE  PROTEQING 
GEARS  FROM  MILK  AND  WATER 


HELICAL  TOOTH  SPUR  GEAR 
AND  PINION 


BRONZE  REVERSIBU  WORM  WHEEL 


OPEN  SANITARY  BASE 


—SEAMLESS  ANTI-SPIASM 
SANITARY  SUPPLY  CAN 


SANITARY  FAUCET 
EXTRA  HEA\/Y  TINWARE 


SIMPLE  CREAM  SCREW 
ADJUSTMENT 


VA3LE  MILK  DISTRIBUTOR 


LF  OILING  TOP  BEARING 
WITH  DUST  COVER 


Courtesy  of  De  Laval  Cream  Separator  Co. 
Fig.  65.    A  most  useful  machine  on  the  farm  is  the  cream  separator  which 

ENABLES  the  FARMER  TO  SELL  CREAM  AND  SAVE  THE  SKIMMED  MILK  FOR  FEED. 


MACHINES  323 

be  made  only  on  foot.  What  a  slow  kind  of  life  we 
should  experience.  Remember  that  most  of  the  modern 
machines  have  come  into  general  use  only  lately.  Find 
the  dates  when  the  various  farm  machines  were  invented. 

The  basic  principles  of  the  machine  have  been  known 
for  centuries.  While  man  has  not  always  had  the 
advantage  of  the  modern  reaper  and  the  modern  engine, 
yet  he  has,  in  some  measure,  taken  -advantage  of  the 
principles  involved  in  the  make-up  of  these  machines. 
The  first  implement  which  can  be  said  to  have  been  a 
plow  was  the  flint  rock  tied  to  a  stick  and  used  by  the 
Indians.  To  be  sure  it  did  not  look  much  like  our 
modern  plow  but  the  principle  was  the  same. 

Classes  of  Farm  Implements. — Farm  implements 
may  be  grouped  under  various  headings  according  to 
their  use  on  the  farm.  The  following  classes  should  be 
studied:  tillage  machinery,  seeding  machines,  culti- 
vating machines,  fertilizing  machines,  harvesting  ma- 
chines, cutters  and  threshers,  stationary  equipment, 
and  tools. 

The  Plow. — The  main  implement  belonging  to  the 
first  class  is  the  plow.  There  are  two  general  classes 
of  plows,  the  moldboard  and  the  disk,  the  moldboard 
type  being  the  more  common  of  the  two.  The  disk 
plow  is  used  in  deep  tilling  where  a  double  plow  is 
needed.  There  are  several  types  of  moldboards  rang- 
ing from  the  straight  sod  moldboard  to  the  short-curve 
stubble  moldboard.  Pupils  should  report  on  the 
plows  used  on  the  various  farms  in  the  district.     It  is 


324  FARM   PROJECTS 

very  likely  that  the  boys  have  never  noticed  any 
differences  in  the  shapes  of  the  plows. 

Land  tillage  in  America  probably  began  when  the 
Indians  used  the  wooden  hoe  or  the  flint  hoe  which 
was  followed  by  the  wooden  plow  with  a  wooden 
moldboard. 

The  gang  plow  is  a  double  plow  and  is  built  as  a 
riding  plow.  Tire  modern  tractor  plows  sometimes 
have  as  many  as  twelve  plows  working  at  once,  all 
drawn  by  one  engine.  In  large  fields  the  tractor  does 
excellent  work  and  is  a  good  investment. 

The  Harrow. — The  purpose  of  the  plow  is  to  break 
the  soil  so  that  it  can  be  more  thoroughly  prepared  for 
the  seed  bed;  but  the  harrow  is  the  principal  implement 
used  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  and  its  use  is  espe- 
cially necessary  in  preparing  a  good  mulch  on  the  newly 
plowed  ground  in  order  to  retain  the  moisture.  The 
harrow  need  not  be  used  immediately  after  fall  plow- 
ing, but  when  corn  ground  is  being  prepared  in  the 
spring  the  harrow  should  be  used  as  soon  as  the  ground 
is  broken.  There  are  various  kinds  of  harrows,  the 
most  common  being  the  spiked-tooth  harrow.  The 
disk  harrow  is  frequently  called  a  disk.  It  is  composed 
of  a  series  of  disks  and  pulverizes  the  soil  more 
efficiently  and  to  greater  depth  than  the  tooth  harrow. 
There  is  a  harrow  called  the  spring-tooth  which  is 
not  so  common  as  the  other  two. 

The  Roller. — The  roller  is  used  for  the  purpose  of 
packing  the  soil  after  it  has  been  harrowed  or  In  some 


MACHINES  325 

cases  after  it  has  been  planted.  It  is  very  simple  in 
construction.  Sometimes  it  is  made  by  putting  an 
axle  in  each  end  of  a  cylindrical  log  and  fixing  a  double- 
tree and  tongue. 

Types  of  Cultivators. — There  is  not  space  here  to 
say  something  about  each  class  of  farm  machine,  but 
some  attention  should  be  given  to  the  different  types 
of  cultivators.  There  are  three  main  types  of  corn 
cultivators:  the  disk,  the  shovel,  and  the  surface 
cultivator.  The  relative  merits  of  these  types  are 
disputed  by  farmers  and  in  some  communities  one 
kind  will  be  found  while  in  another  the  other  types  will 
prevail.  There  are  certain  outstanding  features  and 
advantages  of  each  type  that  should  be  recognized. 
The  disk  cultivator  can  be  used  while  the  corn  is  yet 
very  small  to  stir  the  ground  thoroughly.  It  leaves  the 
soil  in  good  condition.  The  shovel  cultivators  stir 
the  soil  to  greater  depths  and  can  be  used  successfully 
where  this  is  necessary.  The  surface  cultivator  should 
be  used  where  only  a  top  mulch  is  needed.  It  is  the  best 
type  for  the  later  plowing  of  corn  as  all  weeds  can  be 
cut  by  the  surface  cultivator  and  a  mulch  can  be 
produced  that  will  hold  the  moisture.  At  the  same 
time,  the  soil  is  left  in  good  condition  and  the  surface 
can  be  made  level.  The  condition  of  the  soil,  the 
weeds,  the  season,  and  the  stage  of  the  growth  of  the 
corn  are  all  factors  which  must  be  considered  in  choos- 
ing a  cultivator.  Whatever  kind  is  used  should  be 
so  operated  that  it  will  leave  a  fine  mulch  of  soil  and 


326  FARM  PROJECTS 

destroy  all  weeds.  Good  cultivation  depends  largely 
upon  correct  adjustment  of  the  cultivator  rather  than 
upon  the  type  of  the  cultivator  used.  The  writer  has 
seen  a  field  of  corn  almost  ruined  because  the  cultiva- 
tor was  not  properly  adjusted  the  first  time  the  corn 
was  plowed.  Sometimes  the  harrow  is  used  as  the 
cultivator,  corn  being  frequently  cultivated  for  the 
first  time  by  the  harrow.  Wheat  is  sometimes 
harrowed  and  alfalfa  is  frequently  disked  or  harrowed 
after  the  first  cutting  in  the  spring.  Many  types  of 
garden  cultivators  have  been  devised. 

Care  of  Machinery. — Some  farmers  allow  their 
machines  to  remain  out  in  the  open  weather  all  winter. 
Others  build  substantial  sheds  for  the  housing  of  their 
machinery  just  as  they  build  barns  for  their  cattle. 
Pupils  should  find  the  cost  of  constructing  a  machine 
shed  large  enough  to  shelter  the  machinery  of  the 
average  farm.     Will  it  pay  to  house  the  machinery.? 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  sight  to  see  plows  and  even 
binders  standing  out  in  the  field  all  winter  long.  All 
iron  is  subject  to  decomposition  or  rusting  when  the 
moisture  and  air  come  in  contact  with  it.  Plows  should 
be  painted  in  the  fall  with  a  heavy  oil  or  grease  to  keep 
the  moisture  and  air  from  rusting  them.  If  they 
are  put  under  shelter  and  painted  they  will  be  as  bright 
in  the  spring  as  they  were  in  the  fall;  but  if  allowed  to 
rust  all  through  the  winter,  they  will  be  unfit  for  use  in 
the  spring.  Much  time  will  be  consumed  in  ridding  the 
moldboard  of  the  rust  in  order  to  make  it  turn  the  soil. 


MACHINES  327 

Make  a  survey  of  the  tool  sheds  of  your  own  homes. 
How  many  bright  saws,  hammers,  bits,  squares,  and 
planes  are  found?  How  many  neatly  kept  tool  chests 
do  you  find  ?  Are  the  tools  arranged  in  an  orderly  way 
in  the  tool  shed  ?  Do  you  know  where  to  find  certain 
tools  when  they  are  needed?  Is  the  spade  in  its  place? 
Will  it  cut  the  sod  when  necessary  or  is  it  dull  and 
rusty?  These  are  some  of  the  suggestive  questions 
which  every  boy  and  girl  may  ask  about  his  or  her 
home.  Would  it  not  be  interesting  to  write  a  story 
giving  a  description  of  the  tool  shed  at  home?  Boys 
and  girls  may  be  of  much  service  in  helping  to  con- 
serve the  wealth  of  the  nation  by  taking  care  of  the 
tool  sheds  at  home. 

A  good  old  man  more  than  seventy-five  years  of 
age  came  out  into  the  field  to  do  some  work  one  morn- 
ing. He  had  an  object  under  his  arm  which  was 
wrapped  securely  in  an  old  newspaper.  We  wondered 
what  it  could  be.  When  he  was  ready  to  go  to  work, 
the  boys  saw  him  carefully  take  the  paper  from  this 
object  and  fold  the  paper  for  further  use.  He  showed 
us  a  clean,  bright,  well-oiled,  and  well-preserved  spade. 
For  more  than  thirty  years  he  had  used  this  spade  but 
it  had  never  been  allowed  to  rust.  It  had  never  been 
put  away  in  a  hurry  with  the  wet  soil  clinging  to  it. 
The  man  had  found  it  to  his  advantage  to  have  the  spade 
always  ready  and  when  he  was  through  using  it  he 
cleaned  it  before  he  left  the  field  and  again  wrapped 
it  in  paper,  for  he  had  to  ride  on  a  train  to  get  home. 


328  FARM  PROJECTS 

There  is  a  lesson  in  this  incident  for  every  boy  and  girl 
who  is  in  the  habit  of  using  tools  and  leaving  them  in 
the  most  convenient  place  without  cleaning  them.  It 
pays  to  take  care  of  machinery  just  as  it  pays  to  take 
care  of  the  animals  on  the  farm.  The  tools  do  not 
need  food  but  they  will  respond  as  quickly  as  living 
beings  to  good  care.  Good  care  tells  in  the  life  of  the 
person.     It  will  tell  in  the  bank  account  of  the  farmer. 

Review  Exercises  and  Problems 

1.  What  is  the  total  value  of  machinery  on  all  farms  studied 
by  the  class.? 

2.  Are  there  fewer  horses  in  your  community  than  there  were 
five  years  ago  ? 

3.  Give  illustrations  of  the  inclined  plane  and  of  the  lever. 

4.  Give  five  reasons  for  building  a  machine  shed. 

5.  How  many  board  feet  of  lumber  are  required  to  make  the 
sides  of  a  machine  shed  forty  feet  long,  twenty  feet  wide,  and 
twelve  feet  high  if  the  siding  is  made  of  plain  one-inch  boards.? 
What  would  it  cost.? 

6.  Write  a  story  telling  what  you  saw  in  your  tool  shed  when 
you  opened  the  door. 

7.  What  advantages  do  tractors  have  over  horses?  What  dis- 
advantages.? 

8.  What  kinds  of  cultivators  are  used  in  your  community.? 
Why  is  this  kind  preferred  to  other  kinds.? 

9.  Secure  catalogues  giving  prices  of  machinery  and  make  a  list 
of  machinery  needed  on  your  farm  with  the  cost  price  of  each  if  it 
were  purchased  at  the  present  time.  What  would  be  the  cost  of 
the  necessary  machinery  for  the  farm? 


XX 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  GAS  ENGINE 


Home  Work 

How  many  farmers  in  your  community  own  gas 
Make  a  list  of  all  the  farm  operations  for 
which  the  gas  engine  is  used.  What  kinds  of  engines 
are  used  on  the  farms  in  your  community?  Tabulate 
the  results  as  follows: 


engines? 


STATIONARY  ENGINES 

Total  Number 
IN  Community 

Number  of 
Cylinders 

Name  of 
Make 

Horse 
Power 

Cost 

1 

1 

1 

Make  a  similar  list  of  the  tractors  and  automobiles. 

Study  a  stationary  engine  to  locate  the  following 
parts:  cylinder,  piston,  spark  plug,  crank  shaft,  con- 
necting rods,  valves,  push  rods,  flywheel.  If  possible, 
have  some  one  help  you  take  the  engine  apart.  Answer 
the  following  questions  about  your  engine  or  the  engine 
of  your  neighbor: 

329 


330  FARM   PROJECTS 

1.  How  many  cylinders  has  it?  What  is  the  diameter  of  each? 
If  you  cannot  take  the  cyUnder  head  off  to  examine  the  parts,  ob- 
tain a  catalogue  showing  a  photograph  of  an  engine  and  its  parts. 

2.  How  many  piston  rings  on  each  piston  ? 

3.  What  kind  of  spark  plugs,  if  any,  do  you  use? 

4.  What  is  the  diameter  of  the  flywheel  ? 

5.  How  many  revolutions  per  minute  should  the  flywheel  make 
when  running  at  ordinary  speed  ? 

6.  What  kind  of  fuel  is  used  ? 

7.  How  much  fuel  is  required  per  hour  when  the  engine  is  doing 
heavy  work  ? 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

The  gas  engine  is  rapidly  becoming  a  universally 
used  machine.  In  many  sections  of  the  country  it  is 
taking,  in  the  form  of  tractors,  the  place  of  horses  on 
the  farm.  A  very  large  percentage  of  farmers  use  the 
gas  engine  for  some  purpose  though  they  may  not  own 
a  tractor  or  an  automobile,  both  of  which  depend  upon 
the  gas  engine  as  the  source  of  power. 

The  name  gas  engine  is  commonly  applied  to  any 
engine  which  obtains  its  power  by  internal  combustion; 
that  is,  by  exploding  gases  within  itself.  The  gas  which 
is  exploded  or  burned  is  called  the  engine's  fuel. 

The  uses  to  which  a  gas  engine  may  be  put  on  the 
farm  are  so  numerous  and  varied  that  a  complete  list 
would  be  too  long  to  be  included  in  this  lesson. 

The  tractor  and  automobile  are  the  two  principal 
machines  which  depend  upon  the.  gas  engine  for  power. 
The  stationary  engine  may  be  used  for  such  purposes 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  GAS   ENGINE  331 

as  operating  the  pump,  the  feed  grinder,  the  wood 
saw,  the  cream  separator,  the  washer,  the  churn,  and 
other  devices  which  can  be  operated  by  the  pulley. 
The  tractor  has  been  adapted  to  a  great  many  differ- 
ent operations,  from  mowing  lawns  to  threshing 
grain.  Many  kinds  of  machines  have  been  adapted  to 
its*  use. 

In  order  to  obtain  energy  or  power  from  the  horse 
or  other  animal,  some  kind  of  feed  is  necessary.  In 
order  to  obtain  power  from  the  gas  engine,  feed  or 
fuel  is  necessary.  Gasoline  is  used  almost  exclusively 
in  automobile  engines.  The  tractor  is  operated,  as  a 
rule,  by  the  use  of  a  heavier  fuel  than  gasoline,  usually 
kerosene.  Whatever  fuel  is  used  must  be  of  a  kind  that 
is  easily  evaporated  and  must  be  inflammable  when 
mixed  with  air.  Kerosene  is  much  cheaper  than  gaso- 
line, hence  its  use  is  common  in  engines  which  are 
adapted  to  its  use. 

Every  boy  on  the  farm  is  familiar  with  the  intense 
heat  of  the  fire  box  of  a  steam  engine  at  threshing 
time.  It  is  necessary  to  change  the  water  into  steam 
by  intense  heat.  In  the  gas  engine  the  fuel,  whatever 
it  be,  is  changed  to  gas  by  evaporation.  For  this 
reason  the  engine  must  be  hot  in  order  to  get  the  best 
results;  not  hot  enough,  however,  to  boil  the  water 
in  the  cooling  tank.  The  gas  enters  a  chamber  called 
the  cylinder  and  is  exploded  by  an  electric  spark  from 
the  spark  plug.  When  gas  explodes  it  expands. 
Intense  heat  is  created  by  the  explosion.     The  expan- 


332 


FARM   PROJECTS 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  GAS   ENGINE  333 

sion  caused  by  the  explosion  causes  the  piston  to  move, 
which,  in  turn,  turns  the  crank  shaft.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  these  different  parts  and  their  relation  to 
each  other.  It  is  this  burning  of  gas  that  is  called 
internal  combustion. 

Some  Parts  of  the  Gas  Engine. — The  cylinder  is  the 
chamber  in  which  the  explosion  of  gas  takes  place,  the 
piston  moving  up  and  down  in  the  cylinder.  The  walls 
of  the  cylinder  are  perfectly  smooth  so  as  to  prevent 
unnecessary  friction  and  to  allow  the  piston  to  fit 
closely  in  the  cylinder  chamber. 

The  piston  is  fitted  with  one  or  more  rings  which 
fit  in  grooves  about  it  like  a  spring.  The  rings  are 
cut  in  one  place  and  are  always  springing  or  pressing 
outward  against  the  cylinder  wall,  thus  making  it 
impossible  for  the  gas  or  oil  to  escape  along  the  sides  of 
the  pistons. 

The  spark  plug  is  a  small  piece  of  apparatus,  but  it 
is  most  important.  Nearly  everyone  is  familiar  with 
the  peculiar  *'chug  chug"  of  the  automobile  or  tractor 
when  it  is  "missing,"  a  trouble  which  is  due  in  all 
probability  to  the  spark  plug.  The  spark  plug  is  the 
match  which  ignites  or  fires  the  gas  in  the  cylinder. 
An  electric  current  passing  through  the  plug  jumps 
from  one  point  to  the  other,  causing  a  spark.  One  can 
see  this  spark  by  placing  the  metallic  part  of  a  screw- 
driver on  the  engine  and  bringing  it  close  to  the  plug 
while  the  engine  is  working,  causing  the  spark  to  jump 
from  the  plug  to  the  screwdriver.     If  the  spark  plug 


334  FARM   PROJECTS 

becomes  dirty  or  is  broken,  the  spark  is  either  not 
formed  or  is  not  "alive"  and  does  not  fire  the  gas.  In  this 
case  there  is  a  loss  of  power  and  the  engine  is  said  to 
"miss."  The  engine  must  be  timed  so  that  the  spark 
fires  the  gas  at  the  instant  when  the  piston  is  in  proper 
position.  Sometimes,  for  various  reasons,  spark  plugs 
get  very  hot  and  the  porcelain  part  is  then  likely  to 
break. 

The  crank  shaft  is  a  shaft  to  which  the  pistons  are 
connected  by  rods.  The  shaft  really  has  one  or  more 
cranks  on  it  to  which  the  rods  are  fastened.  As  the 
pistons  move  up  and  down,  the  shaft  is  forced  to  turn, 
changing  the  up-and-down  motion  of  the  pistons  to  a 
rotary  motion  of  the  crank  shaft,  thus  turning  a  fly- 
wheel. This  change  in  motion  is  similar  to  the  change 
in  motion  which  takes  place  when  the  pedals  on  a  child's 
velocipede  are  pushed  back  and  forth.  This  causes  the 
shaft  to  turn,  and  the  shaft  causes  the  wheels  to  turn. 
The  connecting  rod  is  fastened  to  the  piston  by  a 
piston  pin.  The  rod  moves  to  and  fro  as  the  hand 
moves  at  the  wrist,  which  gives  this  pin  the  name  of  the 
"wrist  pin." 

Cylinders  and  pistons  get  very  hot  as  the  latter 
move  back  and  forth  in  the  former  and  must  be 
cooled  continually  or  the  cylinder  walls  would  become 
overheated  in  a  short  time.  A  jacket  called  a  water 
jacket  is  placed  around  each  cylinder  and  water  circu- 
lates through  these  jackets  to  cool  the  walls.  In  the 
winter,  when  the  engine  is  not  in  action,  this  water 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  GAS   ENGINE  335 

must  be  drained  off  or  it  will  freeze  and  burst  the 
jacket  walls. 

There  must  be  an  entrance  through  which  gas  may 
get  into  the  cylinder  and  an  opening  for  the  burned 
gases  to  escape.  These  openings  are  closed  by  means 
of  valves.  The  valve  consists  of  a  piece  of  metal  which 
is  ground  to  fit  the  opening  exactly.  These  valves  are 
so  connected  with  the  cam  shaft  that  they  open  and 
close  at  the  proper  time.  If  a  valve  becomes  worn  so 
that  the  gases  leak  out  and  the  power  is  reduced,  it  must 
be  ground.  When  it  fits  into  the  openings  exactly  it 
is  said  to  "seat."  The  valves  are  usually  connected 
with  the  shaft  by  means  of  long  push  rods.  When  the 
shaft  turns,  it  moves  the  push  rods  up  and  down,  thus 
opening  the  valves.  The  valves  close  by  means  of 
strong  springs  which  force  them  back  into  position. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  many  parts  of  an  engine, 
working  rapidly  and  becoming  heated,  must  have 
plenty  of  oil  or  the  parts  would  soon  be  ruined  by  the 
friction.  The  crank  shaft  is  in  a  large  iron  case  called 
the  crank  case  which  should  always  contain  oil.  The 
revolving  shaft  picks  up  the  oil  and  splashes  it  over  the 
parts.  An  oil  pump  is  constantly  pumping  the  oil  to 
all  parts  of  the  engine.  If  the  oil  becomes  low,  the 
pistons  heat  and  stick  in  the  cylinders,  causing  the 
engine  to  stop  running. 

h  fiyzuheel  is  attached  to  the  shaft  or  axle  and  thus 
power  is  given  to  a  belt  which  runs  on  a  pulley  attached 
to  the  flywheel. 


336  FARM   PROJECTS 

If  one  part  of  an  engine  can  be  said  to  be  more 
important  than  another,  that  part  is  undoubtedly  the 
carburetor^  which  is  of  very  intricate  construction  and 
may  cause  much  engine  trouble.  It  is  the  part  in 
which  the  air  and  gas  are  mixed  and  taken  into  the 
cylinders  and  might  well  be  called  the  "mixer."  Every 
boy  knows  that  the  coal  and  wood  in  the  stove  will  not 
burn  satisfactorily  unless  they  get  air  which  is  admitted 
to  the  fire  box  through  the  openings  in  the  stove  called 
draughts.  The  air  is  mixed  with  the  gas  in  the  mixer 
or  carburetor  and  the  gas  explodes  readily  when  the 
spark  ignites  it  in  the  cylinder.  There  are  many  types 
or  makes  of  carburetors,  but  the  principle  is  the  same. 
Gas  is  taken  in  through  the  small  opening  controlled 
by  a  valve;  air  is  then  admitted  to  the  chamber  and 
the  mixture  passes  on  to  the  cylinder  chamber  where  it 
is  fired  or  exploded  by  the  spark  of  electricity. 

The  gasoline  or  engine  fuel  goes  into  the  mixing 
chamber  through  a  needle-sized  opening  and  really 
sprays  into  the  chamber.  The  fact  that  it  sprays  into 
the  chamber  causes  it  to  mix  with  the  air  and  the  heat 
of  the  running  engine  causes  rapid  evaporation,  or 
change  to  gaseous  vapor,  just  as  heat  causes  water  to 
evaporate  and  form  steam.  Carburetor  trouble  is  not 
easy  to  remedy  and  it  is  best  not  to  meddle  with  the 
carburetor.  If  it  is  causing  difficulty,  have  an  expert 
mechanic  adjust  it. 

Lubrication. — Lubrication  means  oiling.  The  pur- 
pose of  oiling  is  to  prevent  wear.     When  the  machinery 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  GAS   ENGINE 


337 


338  FARM  PROJECTS 

is  not  well  oiled,  the  metal  surfaces  come  together  and 
wear  very  rapidly.  Many  repair  bills  may  be  saved 
by  using  a  proper  amount  of  oil.  The  parts  which  do 
most  work  and  bear  the  greatest  strain  need  most 
oil.  A  few  minutes  of  wear  without  oil  will  cause 
more  damage  than  weeks  of  wear  with  plenty  of  oil 
present.  There  are  two  general  types  of  oil:  hard 
oil  or  cup  grease,  and  ordinary  liquid  oil.  The  hard 
oil  is  placed  in  cups  which  are  screwed  into  an  opening 
leading  to  a  part  which  needs  oil.  As  the  grease  is 
used  up  the  cup  is  screwed  in.  There  are  usually 
drip  cups  on  all  stationary  engines  from  which  oil 
drips  continually  while  the  engine  is  in  action.  These 
cups  should  be  kept  full  of  a  good  grade  of  lubricat- 
ing oil. 

Summary. — There  are  many  other  parts  with  which 
boys  and  girls  will  become  familiar  as  they  study  the 
gas  engine  but  the  above  description  tells  us  about 
the  main  construction  of  the  gas  engine.  It  is  an 
efficient  machine  and  develops  great  power  for  the  use 
of  the  farmer  and  his  wife  and  may  be  called  a  self- 
feeding,  self-working  power  plant.  The  fuel  flows  in 
through  the  carburetor,  is  mixed  with  air  in  the  mixing 
chamber,  from  which  it  is  taken  into  the  cylinders. 
It  is  there  exploded  by  the  electric  spark.  The  expand- 
ing gas  forces  the  pistons  to  move,  thus  causing  the 
crank  shaft  to  rotate.  The  shaft  distributes  the  energy 
or  power  to  the  flywheel,  which  is  attached  to  other 
machines  by  means  of  a  belt. 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  GAS  ENGINE  339 

Review  Questions 

1.  Name  the  parts  of  the  gas  engine  which  you  know  at  sight. 

2.  Why  should  the  cylinder  walls  be  perfectly  smooth  ? 

3 .  What  is  the  purpose  of  piston  rings  ? 

4.  What  is  the  crank  shaft? 

5.  Why  should  an  abundance  of  lubricating  oil  be  used  at  all 
times? 

6.  Explain  the  purpose  of  the  carburetor. 

7.  What  might  cause  spark  plug  trouble? 

8.  The  pulley  on  the  flywheel  of  a  gas  engine  is  lo"  in  diameter. 
A  belt  extends  from  this  pulley  to  a  5"  pulley  on  a  cream  separator. 
Which  makes  the  larger  number  of  revolutions  per  minute?  In 
what  proportion  is  the  speed  of  the  larger  to  that  of  the  smaller? 

9.  Explain  how  you  would  lower  the  speed  on  a  pump  jack  by 
changing  the  size  of  the  pulleys. 

10.    What  are  the  benefits  to  be  gained  from  the  use  of  a  gas 
engine  on  your  farm  ? 


XXI 

THE  AUTOMOBILE 

Home  Work 

Make  a  survey  of  the  community  to  determine  the 
number  and  kinds  of  automobiles  owned  by  the  farmers. 
Tabulate  the  results  as  follows: 


Make  of 
Car 

Number  of 
Cylinders 

Color 

List  Price 

Model  or 
Year 

H.P. 



Study  your  car  at  home,  locating  the  parts  discussed 
in  the  following  pages.  Obtain  an  illustrated  cata- 
logue showing  the  parts  of  your  car  and  make  clippings 
of  the  illustrations  which  show  the  parts  to  be  studied. 

If  you  do  not  have  a  car  at  home,  spend  some  time 
with  some  one  in  the  class  who  has  one.  Perhaps  a 
farmer  will  be  willing  to  stop  at  the  schoolhouse  and 
explain  the  parts  to  the  class.  Ask  the  owner  of  an 
automobile  to  help  you  answer  the  following  questions : 

I.  Does  the  motor  run  at  higher  speed  when  the  gear  is  in  low 
or  when  it  is  in  high  ? 

340 


THE  AUTOMOBILE  341 

2.  What  is  the  purpose  of  putting  the  gear  in  low  to  start  the 
car? 

3.  What  mileage  is  obtained  from  the  various  makes  of  tires 
commonly  used  in  your  locality  ? 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  cord  tires  and  fabric  tires? 
Which  cost  more?  . 

5.  Why  is  loose  sand  dangerous  as  a  roadbed  for  automobiles  ? 

6.  What  is  the  highest  speed  record  on  a  speedway?  Who 
holds  this  record  ? 

Facts  to  be  Studied 

Importance. — No  business  has  experienced  such 
rapid  growth  and  development  as  the  automobile 
industry.  The  manufacture  of  automobiles  represents 
a  high  point  in  factory  possibilities.  A  large  number 
of  automobiles  are  to  be  found  on  the  market  and  new 
ones  are  appearing  each  season.  Farmers  use  this 
means  of  travel  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
becoming  as  truly  necessary  for  the  farm  boy  to  know 
how  to  operate  and  care  for  automobiles  as  it  was  for 
the  farm  boy  of  earlier  years  to  know  how  to  care  for 
horses  and  different  types  of  vehicles. 

A  Self-Propeller. — The  lesson  on  the  gas  engine 
taught  us  some  of  the  elementary  principles  of  the 
engine.  The  automobile  is  a  self-propelling  vehicle 
inasmuch  as  its  source  of  power  is  an  engine,  usually 
a  gas  engine.  While  there  are  many  types  of  engines, 
the  principles  are  the  same  in  all.  In  this  lesson  we 
shall  study  the  parts  of  the  automobile  in  the  same  way 
that  we  studied  the  parts  of  the  gas  engine. 


342 


FARM  PROJECTS 


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IHE  AUTOMOBILE  343 

Chassis  and  Body. — The  word  chassis  means  a  frame. 
The  chassis  (pronounced  sha'  s6)  of  the  automobile  is 
the  frame  with  the  wheels  and  machinery,  the  other 
part  being  the  body.  Sometimes  the  parts  of  the 
chassis  are  made  in  different  factories  and  put  together 
in  another  factory  by  a  different  manufacturing 
concern.  Bodies  were  originally  made  of  wood  and 
were  rather  heavy  and  cumbersome,  but  were  durable. 
Most  bodies  are  now  made  of  metallic  substances  and 
are  much  lighter  in  weight  than  the  wood  bodies. 

Parts. — The  main  parts  of  the  stationary  engine  have 
been  discussed  in  another  lesson  but  some  words  which 
are  used  to  name  various  parts  of  the  automobile  should 
be  learned.  The  clutch  is  that  part  by  means  of  which 
the  drive  shaft  is  connected  and  disconnected  with 
the  engine.  If  the  wheels  were  permanently  connected 
with  the  engine  by  means  of  the  drive  shaft,  the  car 
would  necessarily  move  when  the  engine  was  started. 
To  prevent  this,  there  is  a  break  in  the  shaft  which 
allows  the  engine  to  "run  idle,"  that  is,  to  run  without 
moving  the  car.  The  clutch  then  connects  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  engine  to  the  driving  gear,  accomplishing 
the  same  result  that  the  belt  does  when  it  connects  the 
flywheel  of  the  engine  to  a  thresher  or  other  machine. 

The  transmission  gears  which  engage  or  connect  the 
engine  and  drive  shaft  are  moved  back  and  forth  by  a 
shifting  lever.  There  are  usually  four  different  gears, 
first  or  low,  second,  third  or  high,  and  reverse,  which 
means  that  there  must  be  four  connecting  gears.     When 


344  FARM   PROJECTS 

the  lever  is  in  "neutral"  none  of  the  gears  are  engaged 
or  connected  to  the  driving  shaft  and  the  automobile 
remains  stationary  even  though  the  engine  is  running. 
The  transmission  is  just  beneath  the  footboard  imme- 
diately behind  the  engine  in  most  cars. 

The  engine  or  crank  shaft  must  be  connected  with 
the  wheels  in  order  to  move  the  car.  The  drive  shaft 
extends  to  the  rear  axle  where  it  is  attached  to  the 
"differential  which  is  a  device  located  in  the  center 
of  the  rear  axle  to  equalize  the  power  applied  to  each 
of  the  rear  wheels.  It  allows  one  wheel  to  travel 
faster  than  the  other  when  the  automobile  is  rounding 
a  corner  or  curve. 

Much  depends  upon  the  rear  axle  or  the  part  to 
which  the  wheels  are  attached.  Some  axles  are  called 
"full-floating"  because  they  float  or  turn  in  oil  and 
bear  none  of  the  weight  of  the  car,  this  weight  being 
borne  by  the  housing  or  casing  about  the  axle.  Axles 
on  buggies  must  be  stationary  and  bear  the  entire 
weight  of  the  load.  The  "full-floating"  axle  turns  the 
wheels  because  it  is  attached  to  the  driving  gear  and 
to  each  wheel.  The  "part-floating"  axle  is  another 
type  and  bears  a  part  of  the  weight  of  the  car. 

Much  depends  upon  the  steering  wheel  and  the 
gears  which  it  turns,  as  every  move  made  by  the  car 
is  directed  by  the  steering  wheel.  It  should  be  kept 
well  oiled  and  properly  adjusted  at  all  times. 

Everyone  who  has  had  experience  with  a  car  knows 
the  purpose  of  a  radiator  and  the  troubles  it  causes. 


THE  AUTOMOBILE  345 

It  should  be  kept  full  of  water  at  all  times  when  the 
car  is  running  as  the  water  must  circulate  through  the 
jackets  about  the  cylinders  to  keep  them  from  becoming 
too  hot.  There  is  usually  a  force  pump  on  the  engine 
to  cause  the  water  to  circulate  freely.  The  water  is 
taken  into  the  jackets  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
radiator  and  returns  to  the  radiator  through  the  hose 
or  tube  leading  into  the  top  part  of  the  radiator,  cool- 
ing again  as  it  flows  downward  through  the  radiator. 

Without  a  cooling  system  the  cylinders  would  become 
hot  and  the  pistons  would  stick  when  the  lubricating 
oil  burned.  Overheating  of  the  engine  indicates  that 
something  is  out  of  order,  and  the  first  place  to  look  for 
a  defect  is  the  radiator  as  the  water  may  be  low  or 
circulation  may  be  stopped  by  some  obstruction.  The 
fan  which  is  placed  between  the  radiator  and  the  engine 
draws  the  air  through  the  radiator  and  causes  the 
water  to  cool  quickly.  If  the  fan  belt  becomes  loose 
or  the  blades  of  the  fan  become  bent,  the  water  does 
not  cool  readily  and  the  engine  heats. 

Freezing. — In  cold  weather,  water  will  freeze  in  the 
radiator  even  when  the  engine  is  running.  If  the 
temperature  is  below  freezing,  an  anti-freezing  solu- 
tion should  be  used,  the  one  most  commonly  used  being 
a  mixture  of  wood  alcohol  and  water.  A  mixture  of 
one  part  of  each  will  not  freeze  at  a  temperature  above 
30°  below  zero.  The  alcohol  evaporates  rapidly  when 
the  engine  becomes  heated,  so  the  radiator  should  be 
examined  frequently  to  make  sure  that  plenty  of  alcohol 


346  FARM   PROJECTS 

remains.  The  author  has  found  that  alcohol  evapo- 
rates less  rapidly  if  a  quart  of  ordinary  cylinder  oil  is 
poured  into  the  radiator.  When  the  engine  stops,  the 
heavy  oil  comes  to  the  top  and  prevents  the  evaporation 
of  the  alcohol.  Make  sure  to  prevent  freezing,  because 
a  radiator  which  has  burst  is  not  only  annoying  in 
many  ways,  but  is  also  likely  to  cause  overheating  at  a 
time  when  the  driver  is  not  looking  for  trouble.  Most 
drivers  cover  the  radiator  and  the  hood  with  a  water- 
proof blanket  during  cold  weather.  This  retains  the 
heat  and  insures  better  service.  However,  the  radia- 
tor should  not  be  completely  covered,  or  the  engine 
will  overheat  because  the  solution  in  the  radiator  will 
soon  boil.  A  space  in  the  center  of  the  radiator  should 
be  exposed. 

The  Storage  Battery. — The  storage  battery  is  the 
source  of  much  difficulty  because  so  few  people  under- 
stand it.  The  storage  battery  consists  of  cells  or 
jars  of  chemicals  in  which  electricity  is  "made." 
Another  means  of  generating  or  "making"  electricity 
is  by  means  of  a  dynamo,  magneto,  or  other  type  of 
mechanical  generator,  and  most  cars  are  equipped 
with  such  generators.  The  electricity  flows  through 
copper  wires  attached  to  the  storage  battery,  to  the 
spark  plugs  where  the  current  is  broken  at  the  points 
on  the  plug.  It  jumps  across  the  gap,  causing  a  spark 
as  it  does  so.  It  is  this  spark  that  fires  the  gas  or 
fuel  in  the  cylinder,  just  as  a  match  fires  or  kindles  the 
fuel  in  the  stove. 


THE  AUTOMOBILE  347 

The  mechanical  generators  on  the  engine  cause  an 
electric  current  to  flow  into  the  storehouse  or  storage 
battery  when  the  engine  is  running  and  the  battery  is 
then  said  to  be  "on  charge."  It  is  really  storing  up 
electricity  which  it  can  send  to  the  spark  plugs  to  fire 
the  gas. 

Care  of  the  Battery. — The  battery  is  an  expensive 
part  of  the  automobile  and  should  receive  careful  atten- 
tion as  many  things  may  happen  to  cause  it  to  lose  its 
power.  The  liquid  in  the  glass  jars  must  be  kept  above 
the  edges  of  the  plates  within  the  jars  by  adding  only 
clear  rain  water  or  distilled  water;  that  is,  water  that 
contains  no  mineral  matter.  In  cold  weather  the 
battery  should  not  be  allowed  to  "run  down"  as  it  will 
freeze.  Batteries  that  are  fully  charged  will  not  freeze 
in  our  coldest  temperatures.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
the  battery  tested  and  filled  every  two  weeks  at  the 
garage  or  battery  station. 

Some  Common  Causes  of  Car  Troubles 

When  farmers  drove  horses  on  the  road  it  was  not 
a  frequent  occurrence,  though  one  which  did  happen 
sometimes,  to  see  a  balky  horse  stand  in  the  road  refus- 
ing to  do  the  bidding  of  his  master.  But  since  the 
car  has  become  a  common  means  of  travel  it  is  not  an 
uncommon  occurrence  to  see  some  one  "stalled" 
along  the  roadside.  Many  hours  of  waiting  and  much 
hard  work  might  be  saved  to  the  autoist  if  more  atten- 


348  FARM   PROJECTS 

tion  were  given  to  details,  and  if  each  driver  studied 
the  make-up  of  his  car.  A  few  of  the  common  difficul- 
ties will  be  discussed  here  for  the  purpose  of  causing 
boys  and  girls  to  observe  more  closely  the  operations 
of  the  automobile.  Often  a  large  repair  bill  can  be 
avoided  by  careful  observation. 

The  Engine  Will  Not  Start. — The  feeling  which  a  balky 
car  arouses  in  the  driver  is  a  well-known  experience,  but 
often  the  cause  of  the  difficulty  may  be  easily  located 
and  remedied.     Some  causes  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  carburetor  is  flooded  and  should  be  drained  of  excess 
gasoline. 

2.  The  supply  of  gas  may  be  low  or  entirely  used.  Many  ama- 
teur drivers  have  become  overheated  from  cranking  a  car  on  a 
hot  day  only  to  find  the  gas  tank  empty. 

3.  Dirt  or  other  material  may  be  obstructing  the  opening  to  the 
carburetor,  permitting  only  a  scant  supply  of  gas.  This  is  fre- 
quently true  when  the  engine  "  spits. " 

4.  The  wiring  may  be  disconnected  at  some  point,  preventing 
the  spark  or  fire. 

5.  The  coil  and  other  wiring  may  be  wet  from  the  rain. 

The  Starter  Will  Not  Turn  the  Engine. — Sometimes 
the  starter  fails  to  turn  the  engine.  In  such  a  case  the 
battery  may  be  weak  and  the  engine  may  be  started 
with  the  hand  crank.  A  long  run  will  probably  re- 
charge the  battery,  but  if  the  car  is  used  for  short  drives 
only,  the  battery  should  be  recharged  at  the  garage. 
The  battery  and  starter  may  be  in  good  shape  and  yet 
not  turn  the  engine.     If  the  engine  cannot  be  turned 


THE  AUTOMOBILE  349 

by  hand,  the  trouble  is  probably  in  the  cylinders. 
The  pistons  may  be  lodged  because  of  overheating. 
In  cold  weather  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  engine 
becomes  locked  and  cannot  be  turned  by  hand  or 
starter.  The  water  pump  may  be  frozen  in  this  case, 
or  it  is  likely  that  the  starter  gear  or  wheel  has  lodged 
or  frozen  to  the  flywheel.  If  this  is  true,  shift  the 
gear  to  third  or  high  speed  and  push  the  car  backward 
by  hand.  This  motion  will  dislodge  the  starter  from 
the  flywheel  and  the  engine  may  be  turned. 

Missing. — Missing  may  be  caused  by  various  defects. 
The  sound  of  the  engine  that  is  chugging  along  on  one 
or  two  cylinders  when  it  should  be  using  four  or  six 
is  a  familiar  one.  The  explosions  are  not  regularly 
placed,  and  the  engine  "misses"  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  fuel  or  gas  in  one  or  more  cylinders  is  not  fired  by 
the  electric  spark.  One  wire  leading  to  the  spark  plugs 
may  be  disconnected  or  broken  or  the  points  of  the  spark 
plug  may  be  so  far  apart  that  the  current  cannot  jump 
across.  The  car  should  not  be  driven  far  while  the 
cylinders  are  failing  to  fire.  Missing  may  be  due  to  a 
dirty  or  broken  spark  plug,  a  weak  mixture  of  gas, 
overheating  of  the  engine,  or  other  causes.  The  cause 
should  be  located  before  the  car  is  driven  very  far. 

Knocks. — Knocks  in  the  engine  may  be  due  to  many 
diff^erent  causes,  but  whatever  the  cause,  it  should  be 
corrected.  Frequently  a  motor  knocks  when  it  is 
pulling  up  hill  on  high  and  in  such  a  case  the  spark 
should  be  retarded.     The  tappets  frequently  become 


350  FARM   PROJECTS 

loose  and  cause  a  clicking  sound.  Loose  bearings 
cause  a  knocking  sound  and  should  be  taken  up  or  the 
shafts  will  soon  be  worn.  Carbon  deposits  in  the 
cylinders  are  the  result  of  too  much  oil  or  the  use  of  a 
poor  grade  of  oil.  This  condition  causes  knocking  and 
is  more  likely  to  occur  when  the  pistons  are  worn,  thus 
allowing  oil  to  get  by  the  pistons  in  large  quantities 
and  be  burned  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  cylinder. 

Tire  Trouble. — Perhaps  no  other  difficulty  causes 
the  motorist  so  much  annoyance  as  *'tire  trouble." 
Most  cars  are  equipped  with  pneumatic  tires,  that  is 
tires  that  are  filled  with  air,  and  the  tire  upkeep  is  an 
expensive  item  in  the  maintenance  of  an  automobile. 
There  are  several  preparations  on  the  market  at  present 
which  take  the  place  of  the  inner  tube  and  air.  The 
casing  is  filled  with  a  rubber-like  substance  which  gives 
the  tire  about  the  same  hardness  or  fullness  as  if  it 
were  pumped  to  seventy-pound  pressure.  The  tire 
which  is  filled  in  this  way  can  be  used  until  it  is  worn 
out  and  there  are  no  punctures  and  no  blow-outs. 
There  are  advantages  in  both  methods  of  filling  tires. 
Some  electrics  and  trucks  are  equipped  with  solid  rubber 
tires  but  the  solid  tire  causes  much  more  rapid  deprecia- 
tion of  the  car  than  air-filled  tires. 

The  most  common  tire  trouble  is  the  puncture  of 
the  inner  tube  caused  by  a  thorn,  a  tack,  a  wire,  a 
splinter,  or  other  sharp  object.  The  car  should  be 
stopped  as  soon  as  the  tire  begins  to  lose  air,  other- 
wise the  rim  of  the  wheel  will  soon  cut  the  tire.     Usuallv 


THE  AUTOMOBILE  351 

the  puncture  can  be  mended  with  a  patch  and  the  tire 
can  be  replaced  at  once. 

A  blow-out  is  a  more  serious  difficulty.  The  out- 
side casing  breaks  or  blows  out,  leaving  a  rent  in  the 
rubber  and  fabric  as  well  as  in  the  inner  tube.  If  the 
tire  is  an  old  one,  it  is  usually  economy  to  sell  it  as 
junk;  but  if  the  tread  is  not  worn  much,  it  may  be 
vulcanized.  Tires  may  be  retreaded  for  about  one 
half  of  the  original  cost  of  the  tires.  There  are  different 
opinions  as  to  the  economy  of  retreading  or  half-soling 
the  worn  tire. 

Tire  trouble  cannot  be  avoided,  but  it  may  be 
lessened  by  proper  attention.  Tires  should  never  be 
run  without  sufficient  air  in  them.  From  50  to  90 
pounds  of  pressure  is  to  be  recommended,  depending 
upon  the  size  of  the  tire.  Remember  that  tires  become 
very  hot  in  the  summer  time.  Heating  increases  the 
pressure  of  air  by  expansion  and  if  one  were  to  pump 
small  tires  to  70  pounds  on  a  hot  summer  day  and  then 
take  a  long  trip,  the  increased  expansion  due  to  the 
keat  would  be  likely  to  cause  a  blow-out.  If  the  wheels 
get  out  of  line,  the  tires  will  be  cut  in  a  few  days  because 
they  do  not  run  "true." 

Review  Exercises  and  Problems 

1.  In  what  way  can  an  automobile  be  said  to  be  self-propelled? 

2.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  "chassis"? 

3.  What  happens  when  the  clutch  is  "  let  in  "  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  throwing  the  gear  into  "  neutral "  ? 


352  FARM   PROJECTS 

5.  What  causes  the  water  to  cool  so  rapidly  in  the  radiator? 

6.  Can  you  tell  the  difference  between  a  full-floating  and  a  part- 
floating  axle? 

7.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  storage  battery  in  the  car? 

8.  What  causes  the  iron  jackets  and  radiator  walls  to  burst 
when  the  water  in  them  freezes  ? 

9.  List  all  the  causes  you  can  which  might  prevent  the  engine 
from  starting  when  it  is  cranked. 

10.  What  is  meant  by  "missing"? 

11.  Tell  how  to  mend  a  puncture. 

12.  What  difficulties  have  you  had  with  your  car  recently? 
Describe  just  what  you  did  to  correct  the  trouble. 

13.  Find  out  if  possible  what  the  length  of  life  of  several  cars  has 
been  in  your  community,  and  the  amount  of  money  expended  for 
each.  Determine  the  yearly  cost  of  owning  and  operating  a  Ford 
car.     Do  the  same  thing  with  some  other  kinds. 

14.  Mr.  A.  purchased  an  automobile  for  $1,850.  He  used  it  six 
years  and  sold  it  to  the  junk  dealer  for  $40.  During  the  time  he 
had  spent  $680  for  repairs  including  the  cost  of  tires.  What  was 
the  average  yearly  cost  of  owning  the  car? 

15.  Write  a  composition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects: 

Why  a  Farmer  Should  Own  an  Automobile 
My  Funniest  Experience  While  Motoring 
The  Automobile  Law  in  My  State 
My  Favorite  Car 

16.  Compare  the  value  of  the  automobiles  owned  by  the  farmers 
in  the  community  with  the  value  of  horses  owned  by  the  farmers  in 
the  same  community. 

17.  Place  a  red  dot  on  the  community  map  for  each  automobile 
owned. 


APPENDIX 

The  Library 

The  library  is  a  most  important  factor  in  teaching 
agriculture,  particularly  when  pupils  are  observing 
home  activities  as  is  suggested  in  this  book.  Good 
books  are  very  desirable  and  effective  tools  in  the  hands 
of  the  discriminating  teacher  who  is  impelled  by  a  desire 
to  be  of  service  to  those  of  the  school  community  who 
are  outside  of  school.  Good  books  dealing  with  agri- 
cultural topics  will  be  in  demand  by  the  farmers  if  the 
school  makes  them  available.  The  following  brief  list 
of  books  is  offered  not  as  a  list  for  the  pupils*  use  only, 
but  as  general  reading  for  the  farmers  in  the  school 
community. 

Besides  books  there  are  thousands  of  excellent  bul- 
letins and  circulars  dealing  with  agricultural  subjects 
available  to  the  teacher  who  wishes  to  write  for  them. 
Teachers  should  address  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  asking  for  lists  of 
available  bulletins,  then  select  the  ones  which  will  be  of 
most  value  to  the  patrons  of  the  school  and  place  them 
in  the  library.  Each  State  Experiment  Station  and 
College  of  Agriculture  issues  bulletins  and  circulars 
which  are  valuable  to  the  teacher,  pupils,  and  patrons. 

353 


354  FARM   PROJECTS 

Industrial  Companies  such  as  the  International 
Harvester  Company  issue  pamphlets  and  circulars 
many  of  which  are  particularly  designed  to  be  used 
in  rural  schools.  Most  of  the  bulletins,  circulars  and 
pamphlets  referred  to  may  be  secured  for  little  or  no 
cost. 

Suggested  Reference  Books  for  the 
Rural  School  Library 

Bailey,  L.  H. — Manual  of  Gardening:   The  Macmillan  Company 

(541  PP-) 
Benson,  O.  H,,  and  Betts,  G.  H. — Agriculture:  The  Bobbs-Mer- 

rill  Company  (44  pp.) 
Coffey,  W.  C. — Productive  Sheep  Husbandry:    J.   B.  Lippincott 

Company  (460  pp.) 
Eckles,  C.  H. — Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production:  The  Macmillan 

Company  (342  pp.) 
Gehrs,  J.  H. — Principles  of  Agriculture:  The  Macmillan  Company 

(594  PP-) 
Hopkins,  Cyril  G. — The  Story  of  the  Soil:  The  Gorham  Press 

(350  PP-) 

Lewis,  H.  R. — Making  Money  from  Hens:  J.  B.  Lippincott  Com- 
pany (260  pp.) 

Lloyd,  J.  W. — Productive  Gardening:  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 

(399  PP-) 

LovEjOY,  A.  J. — Forty  Years  Experience  of  a  Practical  Hog  Man: 
Frost  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago  (170  pp.) 

Madden,  I.  A.,  and  Turner,  E.  A. — A  Rural  Arithmetic:  Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Company  (236  pp.) 

Mosier,  J.  G. — Soils  and  Crops:    Rand   McNally  &  Company 

(394  PP-) 
Nolan,  A.  W. — A  Year  in  Agriculture:   Row,  Peterson  &  Co. 

(391  PP-) 


APPENDIX  355 

Plumb,  C.  S. — Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry:  Webb  Publish- 
ing Co.  (390  pp.) 

Sanford,  a.  H. — The  Story  of  Agriculture  in  the  United  States: 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  (394  pp.) 

Spillman,  W.  J.^Farm  Science:  World  Book  Company  (344  pp.) 

Stevenson,  J.  A. — The  Project  Method  of  Teaching:  The  Macmil- 
lan  Company  (350  pp.) 

WoLL,  F.  W. — Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals:  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  Company  (362  pp.) 

Waters,  H,  J. — Essentials  of  Agriculture:    Ginn   and   Company 

(455  PP-) 
Waugh,  F.  a. — Landscape  Gardening:   J.  Wiley  &  Sons  (344  pp.) 
Williams  and  Hill — Corn  Book  for  Young  Folk:   Ginn  and  Co. 

(250  pp.) 


INDEX 


Acid,  in  soil,  73-75. 

Alfalfa,  68,  73,  151,  152;  raising  of, 
154-160;  nutritive  ratio  of,  218; 
in  balanced  ration,  218-219;  as 
feed  for  horses,  236;  feed  for 
cattle,  241,  242;  feed  for  sheep, 
271;  feed  for  pigs,  282,  283,  286. 

American  class,  of  poultry,  183. 

Ancona,  184. 

Andalusian,  breed  of  poultry,  184. 

Angus,  245. 

Animals,  feeding  of,  21 1-22 1;  how 
to  tell  the  age  of,  222-228. 

Annuals,  56. 

Anther,  138. 

Ants,  310. 

Apple,  scab  and  blotch  of,  99; 
pruning  of  trees,  102-103. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  300,  303. 

Asiatic  class,  of  poultry,  184. 

Asters,  123. 

Automobile,  the,  329,  330,  340-352. 

Axles,  344. 

Ayrshire,  breed,  248,  253-254,  255. 

Babcoclc  test,  186-193. 

Bacteria,  10,  99,  157,  158,  206. 

Barberry,  32,  108. 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  55. 

Beans,  20,   22,  126,    129-130,  131, 

I34»  151- 
Bedbug,  the,  291. 
Bee,  see  honeybee. 


Beehives,  313,  314. 

Beeswax,  317. 

Beetles,  Colorado  potato,  288,  291, 

293,  295-296,  306,  307,  3 10;  May, 

291;  cucumber,  306,  309. 
Beets,  18,  126,  129,  131,  134. 
Begonia,  24. 

Belgian,  breed  of  horses,  232. 
Berkshire,  breed,  259. 
Biennials,  56. 
Blackberries,  108,  no. 
"Black  leaf  40",  307, 
Blow-out,  351. 
Bobwhite,  299. 
Bone  meal,  69. 

Books,  for  reference,  353-355. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  295,   296,  303, 

306,  307. 
Brahma,  184. 
Breeding  pen,  the,  170. 
Breeds,   of  poultry,    172,    179-185; 

of  draft  horses,  232;  of  beef  cattle, 

242-245;  of  dairy  cows,  247-256; 

of  swine,  259-261;  of  sheep,  265- 

266. 
Bridal  wreath,  28,  108. 
Brown  Swiss,  breed,  248,  254. 
Buckeye,  183. 
Buckwheat,  318. 
Buds,  22-23. 
Bulbs,  22. 
Bulletins,  353,  354. 
Butter,  208-209. 


357 


358 


INDEX 


Butter  fat,  204-205. 

Butterflies,  288,  290,  291,  292,  293. 

Buttermilk,  209. 

Cabbage,  18,  126,  129, 13 1, 134,  305. 

Cabbage  butterfly,  292-293,  305- 
306,  308-309. 

Cabbage  worms,  305-306,  308-309. 

Calcium,  16,  67. 

Calf,  raising  the,  242. 

Canes,  old  and  new,  loi. 

Carbohydrates,  216,  217. 

Carbon,  16,  67. 

Carburetor,  336,  338,  348. 

Carrots,  126,  129,  131,  134. 

Car  troubles,  causes  of,  351. 

Cattle,  age  of,  224-225;  beef,  238- 
246;  breeds  of  dairy,  247-256. 

Chard,  126,  127,  131. 

Chassis,  343. 

Cheat,  47. 

Cheese,  209. 

Cheshire,  breed,  261. 

Chester  White,  breed,  261. 

Cheviot,  breed,  265. 

Chicks,  care  of  young,  175-176. 

Chinch  bug,  50-52,  288,  290,293, 
296,  297. 

Chlorophyll,  13. 

Cholera,  287. 

CHay,  Henry,  244. 

Clover,  as  a  fertilizer,  68,  149-150; 
raising  of  151.  152;  as  feed  for 
horses,  236;  as  feed  for  cattle, 
242;  as  feed  for  sheep,  271;  as 
feed  for  pigs,  283,  286;  honey 
obtained  from  flowers,  318. 

Churn,  331. 

Clutch,  343. 

Clydesdale,  breed  of  horses,  232. 


Cochin,  breed,  184. 

Cockleburr,  58. 

Codling  moth,  293,  302. 

Coil,  348. 

Coleoptera,  291. 

Connecting  rods,  329,  334. 

Corms,  22. 

Corn,  22;  selection  of  seed,  36-42; 
rotation  with  other  crops,  61- 
62;  judging,  79-86;  testing  of 
seed,  87-94;  smut,  99;  ear  rots  of, 
99;  storageof  134;  in  thesilo  199; 
nutritive  ratio  of,  217-218;  in 
balanced  ration,  218-219;  as 
feed  for  horses,  236;  as  feed  for 
cattle,  241,  242;  as  feed  for  sheep, 
271,  276;  feed  for  pigs,  282,  283. 

Cotton,  11;  rotation  with  other 
crops,  63;  growing  of,  161-164; 
marketing,  163. 

Cottonseed  meal,  162,  241,  242. 

Cow  peas,  151,  242. 

Crank  case,  335. 

Crank  shaft,  329,  334,  335,  338. 

Cream  separator,  the,  202-203, 
205-206,  322,  331. 

Crops,  wheat,  43-53;  rotation  of, 
60-63. 

Cucumbers,  22. 

Cucumber  beetle,  306,  309. 

Culling,  167-168. 

Cultivators,  325-326. 

Currants,  pruning  of  bushes,  iio- 
III. 

Cutworms,  298,  302,  303,  305,  308. 

Cylinders,  329,  331,  333,  334,  336, 
338,  345.  349- 

DiflFerential,  344. 
Diptera,  291. 


INDEX 


359 


Diseases,  of  plants,  95-roo;  of 
poultry,  177-178;  from  impure 
milk,  207;  of  sheep,  277-278;  of 
pigs,  287. 

Disk,  323. 

Docking,  263-264. 

Dominique,  183. 

Dorset  Horn,  265. 

Drones,  312,  313,  315,  316. 

Duroc  Jersey,  260. 

Dutch  Belted,  254. 

Dynamo,  346. 

Eggs,  better  production  of,  167- 
178;  for  hatching,  175;  infertile, 
177. 

Elements,  necessary  for  plant 
growth,  15-16. 

English,  class  of  poultry,  185. 

Essex,  261. 

Evergreens,  147. 

Ewes,  273,  274. 

Fairs,  State  and  County,  i. 

Fan  belt,  345. 

Feeders,  270. 

Feed  grinder,  331. 

Feeding,   of  animals,    211-221;   of 

horses,   236;  of  sheep,   270271; 

of  lambs,  275-276. 
Fertilizers,  68-70,  149,  150,  151. 
Flaxseed,  49. 
Flies,  277,  290,  291,  301. 
Flour,  45. 

Flower  bed,  the,  123-124. 
Flowers,  II,  136-140;  on  the  legume 

151;  for  honey,  316-317. 
Flywheel,  329.  33  5»  338. 
Forage,  60. 


Ford,  automobile,  342'. 

Freezing,  of  water  in  radiator,  345. 

Fungus  disease,  97-98. 

Galloways,  245. 

Gas  engine,  the,  300,  329-339- 

Gasoline,  331,  336. 

Geranium,  20,  23,  24. 

Germination,  factors  necessary  for, 

21-22. 
Germs,  11. 

Gooseberries,  109,  iio-iii. 
Grapevines,    pruning   of,    101-102, 

111-112. 
Grasshoppers,  288,  290,  291. 
Guernsey,  the,  248,  252,  254. 

Hampshire,  breed  of  swine,  261; 
breed  of  sheep,  265,  266. 

Harrow,  the,  324. 

Harvesting,  of  garden  crops,  134; 
of  alfalfa,  159-160. 

Hay,  152;  modern  methods  of 
making,  156. 

Hay  caps,  160. 

Hellebore,  303. 

Hemiptera,  291. 

Hens,  selection  of,  168-172;  bal- 
anced ration  for,  218. 

Herefords,  244. 

Hessian  fly,  43,  47,  49,  298. 

Hoe,  324. 

Hogs,  balanced  ration  for,  220. 

Holstein,l89,  248-250,  251,  252,  254. 

Honey,  313-314.  3 16,  317 

Honeybees,  as  groups  of  insects, 
288,  291;. discussion  of,  312-319. 

Honey  locust,  317. 

Honeysuckle,  28,  33. 


36o 


INDEX 


Horses,   balanced   ration   for,   220; 

age  of,  225-227;  breeds  and  care 

of,  229-237. 
Hotbed,  the,  11 5-1 19. 
Houseflies,  288,  291. 
Hydrogen,  16,  67. 
Hymenoptera,  291,  316. 

Incubator,  175. 

Insects,  in  wheat,  49;  groups  of, 
288-294;  straight-winged,  290, 
291;  scaly-winged,  290,  291; 
two-winged,  290-291;  control  of, 
295-304;  of  the  garden,  305-311. 

International  Harvester  Company, 

354- 
Iron,  16,  67. 

Java,  183. 

Jersey,  248,  250-252,  254. 

Kerosene,  331. 

Knocks,  in  an  engine,  349-350. 

Kohlrabi,  17. 

Lambs,  balanced   ration   for,   220; 

docking,  263-264;  raising  of,  273- 

279. 
Landscape,  the,  30. 
Langshans,  180,  184. 
Lard,  258. 
Larva,  of  Hessian  fly,  43;  of  insects, 

288,  292. 
Lawn,  the,  31. 
Layering,  23. 
Leaves,  functions  of,  13. 
Leghorn,  the,  180,  181;  white,  182; 

brown,  182. 
Legumes,  73,  148-153. 
Leicester   breed,  265. 
Lepidoptera,  291. 


Lettuce,  planting  of,  22,  126,  129, 

131 
Library,  the,  353. 
Lice,  chicken,  177;  on  sheep,  277; 

as  half-winged  insects,  29 1 ;  melon, 

307;  plant,  3 10-3 1 1. 
Lilac,  108. 
Limestone,  use  of  on  soils,  72-78, 

151;  in  feed  for  pigs,  282. 
Linseed  meal,  276. 
Live  stock,  60,  61,  157;  club,  280. 
Locusts,  291. 
Lubrication,  336-338. 

Machines,  320-328. 

Magnesium,  16,  67. 

Magneto,  346. 

Manure,  69,  yj. 

Map,  the  community,  4-8;  of  the 
school  grounds,  26. 

May  beetle,  291. 

Mediterranean  class  of  poultry,  184. 

Merino,  266. 

Milk,  testing  of,  186-193;  composi- 
tion of,  203-206;  souring  of, 
206-207;  pasteurized,  207-208; 
evaporated,  208;  condensed,  208; 
products  of,  208-209. 

Milking  Shorthorn,  the,  254. 

Minorca,  184, 

Missing,  349. 

Mites,  177,  277, 

Moldboard,  321,  323. 

Morning  glory,  56. 

Moths,  290,  291. 

Mulching,  29. 

Mulefoot,  261. 

Nectar.  138-139.  IS^  3^2,  313.  317- 
Nitrogen,  16,  6t,  68,  149,  152,  157. 


INDEX 


361 


Nodules,  149,  157. 
Nutrients,  206. 

Oak  tree,  the,  147. 

Oats,    rotation    with   other  crops, 

62;    treating    for    smut,    95-96; 

nutritive  ratio  of,  218;  as  feed  for 

horses,   236;  feed   for  pigs,   282, 

283,  286. 
Oat  straw,  nutritive  ratio  of,  218. 
Oil   meal,   nutritive  ratio  of,   218. 
Onions,  126,  129,  131,  134. 
Orpington,  the,  185. 
Orthoptera,  291 
Oxford,  the  265,  266. 
Oxygen,  16,  67,  150. 

Paris    green,    295,    296,    300,    303, 

305,  306,  307. 
Parsnips,  126,  127,  131,  134. 
Pasture,  59. 
Pear,  blight,  99. 

Peas,  22,  126,  129,  131,  134,  151. 
Percheron,  the,  231.,  232,  235. 
Perennials,  55. 
Petals.  137. 

Phosphate,  rock,  69,  282. 
Phosphorus,  16,  67,  68. 
Pigs,  raising  a  litter  of,  2,  280-287; 

feed  for,  152,  218-219,  220. 
Pistil,  138. 

Piston,  329,  333,  334,  335,  345. 
Plants,  discussion  of,  9-18;  extent 

of  growth,  lo-li;  uses  of,  ii;  as 

a   factory,    ii;   parts  of,    12-14; 

propagation  of,  19-25;  diseases  of, 

95-100;    transplanting    of,     120- 

124;  cotton,  162. 
Plows,  321,  323,  324,  326. 
Plymouth  Rock,  181,  183. 


Poland  China,  260-261. 

Pollen,  136,  139,  151,  316. 

Pork,  258,  259. 

Potassium,  16,  67,  68. 

Potato  beetle,  288,  291,  293,  295, 
296,306-307,310. 

Potato,  Irish,  as  illustration  of 
plant  structure,  16-17;  propaga- 
tion of,  23;  treating  for  scab, 
95-96;  storage  of,  134. 

Potato,  sweet,  18,  134,  135. 

Poultry,  choosing  a  breed,  172; 
breeding  up,  172-173;  selection 
of  birds  for  flock,  173;  feeding, 
173-174;  housing  of,  174-175; 
breeds  of,  179-185;  American 
class,  183;  Mediterranean  class, 
184;  Asiatic  ■  class,  184-185; 
English  class,  185. 

Protein,  216,  217. 

Pruning,  29,  101-114. 

Pullets,  for  laying,  1 76-177. 

Pulley,  331. 

Pulling,  48. 

Pump,  331. 

Pumpkins,  134,  135,  282. 

Punctures,  350-351. 

Pupa,  of  Hessian  fly,  43;  of  insects, 
292. 

Pushrods,  329. 

Queen  bee,  314-315. 
Quicklime,  75. 

Radiator,  344-345.  M^- 

Radishes,  18;  planting  of,  22,  126, 

129,  131. 
Rag  doll,  92-93. 
Ragweed,  56. 
Rambouillet,  266. 


362 


INDEX 


Raspberries,  23,  108,  no. 
Rations,   narrow,   217;  wide,   217; 

balanced,  218-219. 
Red  sorrel,  68,  73,  75. 
Rhode  Island  Red,  181,  183. 
Roller,  324-325- 
Roots,  function  of,  13;  structure  of, 

14;  of  alfalfa,  157-158;  feed  for 

pigs,  282. 
Rootstocks,  23. 
Rotation,  of  crops,  60-63. 
Roughage,  60,  241,  271, 
Royal  jelly,  314. 
Runners,  23. 
Rust,  49;  of  wheat,  99;  leaf  and 

stem  of  oats,  99. 

Sack,  for  seed  corn,  36. 

Salvia,  123-124. 

Scab,  49;  treating  potatoes  for, 
95»  96,  99;  apple,  99;  wheat,  99. 

School  yard,  planting  of,  26-35. 

Score  card,  for  corn,  80,  84,  85. 

Seed,  20-21;  storage  of,  22;  selec- 
tion of  corn,  36-42;  sack  for,  36; 
seasoning  of  corn,  37;  storage  of 
corn,  41;  testing  of  corn,  87-94; 
of  legumes,  152;  sowing  of 
alfalfa,  159;  cotton,  162. 

Sepals,  137. 

Shearing,  264,  269. 

Sheep,  II;  age  of,  224;  breeds  and 
care  of,  263-272. 

Shire  breed  of  horses,  232. 

Shorthorns,  243-244. 

Shropshire,  breed,  265,  266,  267. 

Shrubs,  28;  pruning  of,  103-104, 
107-108. 

Silage,  defined,  195;  feeding  of,  199- 
200,  241,  271. 


Silo,  the,  194-201. 

Skim  milk,  209,  284,  286. 

Smut,   loose,   48;   stinking,   48;  on 

oats,    95-96,    97-98;    on    wheat, 

99. 
Snapdragons,  124. 
Snowberry,  31. 
Soil,    fertility    of,    64-71;    use  of 

limestone    on    sour,    72-78;    for 

gardens,   133-134;  for  growth  of 

legumes,     151;     for     growth   of 

alfalfa,  158. 
Southdown,  breed,  265-266. 
Soy-beans,  22,  68,  73,  151,  242. 
Spermatophytes,  11. 
Spark  plug,  329,  331,  333,  334,  346. 
Spirea,  28. 
Spores,  97,  98. 
Sprayers,    knapsack,    300;    power, 

300. 
Sprays,  poison,  300;  contact,  300; 

repellent,  300;  commonly  used, 

303- 
Squash,  135. 
Stamens,  138. 

Starch,  composition  of,  14-15. 
Starter,    causes    of    trouble    with, 

348-349. 
Stem,   function   of,    13;    structure 

of,   14. 
Steers,  balanced  ration  for,  220. 
Sting,  of  bees,  318. 
Stomach  worm,  277-278. 
Storage,  of  vegetables,  134-135. 
Storage  battery,  346-347. 
Straw,  152. 
Strawberries,  23,  128. 
Suckers,  23. 
Sulphur,  16,  67. 
Swine,  257-262. 


INDEX 


363 


Tamworths,  261. 

Tankage,   nutritive   ratio  of,   218; 

feed  for  pigs,  282,  286. 
Teeth  as  indication  of  age,  223-224. 
Ticks,  277. 
Timothy,    23,    61,    152;    nutritive 

ratio  of  hay,  218;  used  as  feed  for 

horses,  236. 
Tire  trouble,  350-351. 
Tomatoes,  transplanting,    120-121, 

131;  in  garden,  126;  storage  of, 

134;   protection   from   cutworm, 

SOS- 
Tomato  worms,  307. 
Tools,  care  of,  327-328. 
Tractor,   230,  321,  324,  329,   330, 

33 1>  337; 
Transmission  gears,  343-344. 
Trees,    pruning   of,    102-103,    104- 

108;  planting  of,  142-147. 
Transplanting,  120-124. 
Tubers,  17-22. 
Tulip,  136. 
Tunis,  breed,  265. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  353. 

Vaccination,  287. 

Valves,  329,  335,  336. 

Vegetables,  the  home  garden,  125- 

135.. 
Victoria,  breed,  261. 
Vines,  32-33. 


Washer,  the,  331. 

VVater  jacket,  334,  345. 

Weaning  of  lambs,  276-277;  of  pigs, 
285. 

Weeds,  22;  discussion  of,  54-58; 
control  of,  57-58;  growth  in  sour 
soils,  73-75;  honey  obtained  from, 
318. 

Wheat,  the  crop,  43-53;  areas  of, 
46;  yield,  46;  types  of,  46; 
planting  of,  47;  care  of  in  winter, 
48;  diseases  of,  48-49;  yields  in 
Illinois  experiment,  yj;  rust  and 
scab  of,  99;  nutritive  ratio  of, 
218. 

Wheat  bran,  nutritive  ratio  of, 
218;  feed  for  lambs,  276;  feed 
for  pigs,  283. 

Whey,  209. 

White  top,  68. 

Wild  carrot,  56. 

Wild  lettuce,  61. 

Wild  onion,  56. 

Wood  saw,  331. 

Wool,  type  of  sheep,  265;  impor- 
tance of,  268-269;  combing,  269; 
clothing,  269; 

Workers,  312,  315,  316. 

World  War,  77. 

Wyandotte,  White,  182,  183. 

Yorkshire,  breed,  261. 


